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LOGY 







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INDUCTIVE METHODS OF TEACHING. 



ANATOMY PHYSIOLOGY 



AND 



HYGIENE 

With special reference to the effects of 
stimulants and narcotics. 

FOR USE IN PRIMARY AND INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS. 



CHARLES H. MAY, M.D., 

Chief of Eye-Clinic and Instructor in Ophthalmology, College of Physicians and Surgeons, 

Medical Department, Columbia College, N. Y.; Assistant Surgeon N. Y. Ophthalmic 

and Aural Institute ; Fellow of the N. Y. Academy of Medicine, etc. 

THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED. 



PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED BY ENGRAVINGS IN BLACK 
AND COLORS. 



COPIES WILL BE SENT TO r . 
AT 1NTRC 



WILLIAM WOOD 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



GTF aT$ — 

Chap....:.... Copyright No... 
Shelf..: Jito 5 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



A TEXT-BOOK 



ON 



PHYSICS 



BEING A SHORT AND COMPLETE COURSE 



BASED UPON THE LARGER WORK OF GANOT. 



For the Use of Academies, High Schools, etc. 



BY 



HENRY KIDDLE, A.M., 

LATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEW YORK CITY. 



Illustrated, tyy Three Colored Plates and a Large Number 

of Woodcuts, 



A NEW AND IMPROVED EDITION. 

WILLIAM WOOD & COMPANY, Publishers, 

NEW YORK. 



PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY 



AND 



HYGIENE 



CHARLES H. MAY, M.D. 

Chitff-o/'CUmi&f Eye Department, Yanderhilt Clinic, and Instructor in Ophthalmology, 

College of Physicians and S u rgeont^ Medical Department of Columbia Uni- 

v, Xcir York; Professor of Diseases of the Eye and Ear, College 

of Physicians and Sv.r neons. Boston, Matt,; Fellow of the 

Academy of Medicine, Sevc 1'ork, etc., etc. 



' ; AUG c ?1ft9« 



^VU-^-N 



WILLIAM WOOD AND COMPANY 
\KW STORK 






kV 



Copyright, 1896, by 
WILLIAM WOOD AND COMPANY 



TROW OIRECTOR> 

PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING COMPANY 

NEW YORK 



PREFACE. 



In the following pages the author has endeavored 
to present an elementary account of the different 
parts of the human body and the manner in which 
they perform their work — that of living. This serves 
as a basis for the instruction given in the care of the 
body. 

As is well known, a great deal of ill-health and 
many diseases can be avoided by the exercise of care. 
Instruction in the fundamental rules which govern the 
selection of food, proper and sufficient exercise, venti- 
lation, and the correct use of the various functions of 
the body will result in a tendency to increase the 
health and strength of children. Knowledge of this 
sort, if elementary and simple, can be acquired by 
children, and is productive of much benefit in after 
life. 

Though the simplest possible language has been 
employed, and elementary facts only have been pre- 
sented, "baby talk" has been carefully avoided. 
There is no good reason for teaching anatomy, phys- 
iology, and hygiene in this very objectionable but 
v^ry common manner ; certainly no more than applies 
to arithmetic or geography. Such an objectionable 



IV PREFACE. 

style arouses in young minds a suspicion that the 
matter is frivolous or unimportant, or else beyond 
their reach, and hence requiring a coating or disguise. 
The author has attempted a scientific presentation, 
given in the simplest terms compatible with clearness 
and within the power of comprehension of children in 
the primary grade of public and private schools. 



Charles H. May, M.D. 



692 Madison Avenue, New York, 
August 1, 1896. 



CONTENTS. 



LBBBOfl page 

I. Introduction, 1 

II. The Parts of the Body, 5 

III. The Framework or Skeleton, 9 

IV. The Parts of the Skeleton, 13 

V. The Care of the Skeleton, 19 

VI. The Joints, 24 

VII. How the Different Parts of the Body are Moved. — The 

Muscles, 29 

VIII. The Care of Muscles.— Exercise, 35 

IX. Calisthenics 89 

X. Growth and Repair, 45 

XI. The Food of Plants and Animals, . . . . .48 

XII. Our Food, 51 

XIII. The Water which We Drink 56 

XIV. How the Pood is Changed in the Stomach, . . . 61 
XV. The Final Changes in the Food bo th.it it can Mix with 

the Blood.— The Intestines and Liver, .... 69 

XVI. How to En joy Good Digestion 74 

XVII. Life's Fluid.— The Blood, 77 

XVIII. How the Blood is Forced Through the Body. The Heart 

and Blood-Vessels, 83 



VI 



CONTENTS. 



LESSON 

XIX. The Voice.— How We Produce Sounds and Talk, 

XX. Breathing.— The Windpipe and Lungs, . 

XXI. How the Air is Purified.— Fresh Air.— Ventilation, 

XXII. Our Outside Covering.— The Skin, . 

XXIII. The Care of the Skin.— Bathing, 

XXIV. The Warmth of the Body.— Our Clothing, 
XXV. Alcoholic and Other Stimulants, 

XXVI. Alcohol, 

XXVII. Fermentation, 

XXVIII. Alcoholic Drinks, 

XXIX. The Effects of Alcoholic Drink Upon the Body, 

XXX. The Effects of Alcoholic Drink Upon the Different 

Parts of the Bod} 7 , .... 

XXXI. Other Harm which Alcoholic Drink Causes, 

XXXII. Narcotics.— Tobacco, .... 

XXXIII. Opium and Morphine, .... 

XXXIV. The Brain, Spinal Cord, and Nerves, 
XXXV. The Work of the Brain, Spinal Cord, and Nerves, 

XXXVI. The Five Senses.— The Sense of Sight.— The Eye, 

XXXVII. The Care of the Eyes, 

XXXVIII. The Sense of Hearing.— The Ear, . 

XXXIX. The Sense of Smell.— The Nose, 

XL. The Sense of Taste.— The Tongue, . 



PAGE 
92 

95 
102 
106 
111 
114 
117 
119 
122 
125 
131 



LESSON I. 
INTRODUCTION. 

1. Good health is the greatest blessing. You may 
not agree with us, until you have thought over the 
matter and considered of how little value all else is if 
we are feeble and sickly. You may envy those who 
are wealthy, who have done great deeds, and those 
who have acquired much knowledge. But with good 
health everything else is possible ; without it, the 
chances are against us. Have you ever known some 
child who, although surrounded by every comfort 
and every luxury which money can buy, sighs for 
one short day of well-being and would willingly give 
everything for good health? Such cases are very 
common. 

2. In order to properly care for anything, we must 
know something of how it is put together ; and if we 
are going to understand how to take care of ourselves, 
we must know something of the form and structure of 
the different parts of our bodies ; this study is called 
Anatomy. 

3. The -tudy of how we live and how the different 
porta of the body act and do their work is called 
Physiology. It explains what becomes of our food, 
how our blood Hows, how we breathe, grow, and 
move, and do tin- many things necessary to life. 



2 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

4. The study of how to take care of the body and 
how to prevent sickness is called Hygiene. It is a 
very important subject. " An ounce of prevention is 
worth a pound of cure" is an old saying, and is cer- 
tainly a true one. If we wish to avoid sickness, we 
must keep our bodies healthy. In order to know how 
to do this we must learn about the things around 
us which are harmful and poisonous, so as to avoid 
them ; we must study what is good and what is im- 
proper in our food, what are bad habits to be avoided, 
and also the bad effects of drinks containing alcohol 
and of tobacco. All these things Hygiene teaches us. 

5. But if we are to remember them, we must under- 
stand how and why it is that certain things and habits 
are injurious ; and to do this we must know something 
about the structure of the body — Anatomy, and the 
manner in which it does its work — Physiology. These 
three branches — Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene- 
are known by rather long names. Let us see whether 
we cannot make them easy and simple by taking an 
example : 

6. Suppose a man wishes to be an engineer upon a 
locomotive. To perform his duties well, there are 
many things connected with the locomotive which he 
must know. In the first place, he must understand 
the different parts of which it is built and how it is 
put together. This would be the same as the study 
of Anatomy in the human being. 

7. Again, he must understand how the locomotive 
works — what causes the wheels to go round, how 
steam is produced, how to attend to the fire, how to 



INTRODUCTION. 3 

put on the brakes, and how to make this great machine 
go faster or slower. This we would liken to the study 
of Physiology in the human being. 

8. Finally, such an engineer must be acquainted 
with the proper care of his locomotive — what fuel to 
use and how much of it, how to keep the different 
parts clean and oiled, and other things to keep it from 
getting out of order. Similar knowledge applied to 
the human body is called Hygiene. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What can you Bay concerning the possession of good health? 
'2. What is anatomy? 3. What does physiology teach us ? 4. 
What is hygiene? 5. What are some of the things which it 
t tiiches us ? 6. Explain the differences between these three 
branches: anatomy, physiology, and hygiene? 



Cheek 
Chin 



., Scalp. 

Forehead. 
- Bridge of Nose, 




Ankle. 
Arch or Instep of Foot. 



Fig. 1.— The Names of Different Parts of the Body. 



LESSON II. 
THE PAKTS OF THE BODY. 

9. The body may be divided into different parts. 
These are the trunk, the head, and the limbs. 

10. The Trunk.— The trunk is that part of the 
body between the head and upper limbs above, and 
the lower limbs below. The main part of a tree is 
called the trunk, and similarly the principal part of 
the body is called by the same name. It consists of a 
number of bones which help to form two large spaces 
(Fig. 64) : an upper one, the chest, which holds the 
heart and lungs ; and a lower one, the abdomen, for 
the parts in which the food is changed so that it can 
be taken up by the blood. 

11. An Organ of the Body.— We will frequently 
make use of the word "organ." As applied to our 
bodies, it means a part which does some special work. 
For instance, the stomach is one of the organs which 
change the food into a liquid form ; the eye is the 
part wirli which we see, hence it is called the organ of 
sight ; with the tongue we taste our food, hence it is 
called the organ of taste. 

12. The Head. — The head is formed of a number 
of flat bones which meet to enclose a large space for 
the brain, and several smaller ones to receive the eyes, 
ears, nose, and tongue. 



6 



PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



13. The Upper Limbs-— The upper limbs start 
from the shoulders, at the upper part of the trunk. 
There are two upper limbs, a right and a left. Each 
consists of the arm, the forearm, and the hand. Where 
the upper limb joins the trunk is the shoulder. Where 
the arm and forearm meet is the elbow. Where the 
forearm and hand meet is the wrist. The front of the 



/ 

^ 
** 



INDEX 
FINGER 

->, MIDDLE 
<>> FINGER 

RING 
FINGER 

LITTLE 
FINGER 

Pig. 2. — The Hand, with Names of Fingers. 

hand is called the palm, the opposite side, the bacTc of 
the hand. 

14. The Fingers. — Attached to each hand are five 
fingers (Fig. 2) ; these are named as follows : 

The first, which is short and thick, is the thumb. 

The second, the index finger. 

"The third, the middle finger. 

The fonrth, the ring finger. 

The fifth, the little finger. 




THE PARTS OF THE BODY. 7 

15. The Lower Limbs. — The lower limbs start 
from the lower part of the trunk. There are two 
lower limbs, a right and a left. Where the lower 
limbs join the trunk is the hip. Each lower limb con- 
sists of a thighs a leg, and afoot. Where the leg and 
thigh meet is the knee. Where the leg and foot meet 
is the ankle. The under surface of the foot which 
touches the ground is called the sole; the upper sur- 
face is called the instep. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. Into what three main parts do we divide the body? 2. "What 
is the trunk? 3. What large spaces does it contain? 4. What 
parts are found in the chest? 5. What parts are found in the abdo- 
men? 6. What is an organ of the body? 7. Give examples of 
organs in the human body. 8. How is the head formed ? 9. Name 
the parts of which each upper limb consists. 10. Where is the 
shoulder? 11. Where is the elbow? 12. What is meant by the 
palm of the hand ? 13. Give the names of the five fingers, pointing 
to each one upon your own hand. 14. Name the parts of which 
each lower limb consists. 15. Where is the hip? 16. Where is 
the knee? 17. Where is the ankle? 18. Which part of the foot is 
called the sole ? 19. Which part of the foot is called the instep ? 




.Skull. 



.. The Neck. 
. Collar-bone. 



.Bone of Arm. 



Hip-bone. 

.Inner Bone of Forearm. 
.Outer Bone of Forearm. 



. Bones of the Wrist. 
.Bones of the Hand. 



.Bones of the Fingers. 



.Thigh-bone. 



.Knee-pan. 



. Inner Bone of Leg. 
, Outer Bone of Leg. 



Bones of Ankle. 
. Bones of Foot. 
. Bones of Toes. 



Fig. 3. — The Framework or Skeleton. 



LESSON III. 
THE FKAMEWORK OE SKELETON. 

16. If you watch a building from the time it is begun 
until it is finished, you will notice that the foundation 
is laid first ; then strong pillars and beams are put 
in place, and the other parts of the house are built 
around these. If you inquired of the builder what 
these were for, he would tell you for support and 
strength. 

17. In our own bodies there is a similar arrangement 
formed of bones ; this is our framework or skeleton. 
The skeleton is the name given to all the bones of the 
body taken together. They form a framework around 
which all the soft parts are arranged ; in some parts 
of the body they serve as coverings to protect im- 
portant organs, such as the brain, the heart, and the 
lungs. 

18. The Uses of Bones. — The uses of bones are : 
First, to give the body support and to keep it en ct 

This we see especially in the bones of the lower 
limbs, and in the column of small bones placed 
one upon the other, which we speak of as the 
backbone. 
Second, to protect certain parts from injury. The 
brain, lor instance, is enclosed in a sort of oval 



10 



PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



box formed by a number of flat bones joined to- 
gether. 
Third, to give great strengtli. In the foot, for in- 
stance, there are many small bones, so arranged 
that they are strong enough to bear the weight 
of the body in walking and jumping. 
Fourth, for motion. We see examples of such use 
in walking, running, in grasping objects, and in 
the great many different ways in which our 
limbs can be moved. All this is done by means 
of fleshy bundles called muscles ; these are fas- 
tened to the bones and pull them in different 
directions. 
19. There are two hundred bones in the human body. 
They vary in size and form. Some are quite small and 
others are of good size. Some are long, as the thigh- 
bones ; others are small and short, such as the bones 

of the wrist ; others are flat, 
as, for example, the bones 
forming the skull. 

20. Bone appears to be 
solid, but in reality it has 
a great many very small 
spaces in it (Fig. 4). On the 
outside is a very hard layer, 
but within, there is a large 
number of spaces through 
which the little vessels which carry the blood run. 
The long bones, as those of the arm, thigh, and fin- 
gers, are hollowed out in the centre, and in this space 
we find a fatty substance called marrow. 




Fig. 4.— A Thin Slice of Bone, show- 
ing the Spaces, as seen under the 
Microscope. 



THE FRAMEWORK OR SKELETON. 11 

21. Bones are of a pink color during life, on account 
of the blood which they contain ; when dead, the color 
of bone changes to white. 

% 2'J. Lime. — The hardness of bone is due to a min- 
eral substance called lime. You have doubtless often 
11 lime used in making plaster and mortar for the 
walls of houses. 

23. In the bones of the baby there is very little of 
this lime present, and this is the reason why the baby 
cannot Btand : if allowed to stand too soon, the bones 
of the legs may become bent, because they are not yet 
hard enough to bear the weight of the body ; gradu- 
ally, as the baby grows, the hard matter is added. 

24. In young persons the bones have sufficient lime, 
so that they will not bend. They are always softer 
than in the aged, and therefore do not break so easily. 
For this reason boys and girls may receive knocks 
and falls, and may tumble about in play, without in- 
jury to the bones. 

26. In old persons there is more lime, and the bones 
1hm'< >me more brittle than in youth ; hence such bones 
are more easily broken, or, as the doctor would say, 
are more liable to fracture. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What is meant by the word skeleton? 2. Why is it necessary 
to have a skel< B. What are the different uses of bones? 

4. Giye examples of the uses of bones. 5. Plow many bones are 
there in the human body? 6. How do bones vary in size and form? 
7. 1^ bone perfectly solid? 8. Which pari of the bone is the most 
solid? ( .>. How does the inner part of the bone differ from the 



12 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AISTD HYGIENE. 

outer layer? 10. What is marrow? 11. What is the color of bone 
during life? 12. What is the hardness of bone due to ? 13. What 
is peculiar about the bones of the baby ? 14. Why do they bend 
easily ? 15. How do the bones of young persons differ from those 
of old persons ? 16. What is a fracture ? 



LESSON IV. 

THE PAKTS OF THE SKELETON. 

26. We may divide the skeleton into four parts : 
(1.) Bones of the head. 
(2.) Bones of the trunk. 
(3.) Bones of the upper limbs. 
(4.) Bones of the lower limbs. 




Fig. 5.— The Skull. 



27. Bones of the Head — The bones of the head 
taken together form the skull (Fig. 6). The upper 
and back part of the skull forms an oval box in which 



14 



PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



the brain is contained. The rest of the skull, seen 
in front, forms the face. 

28. At the upper part of the face is 
the forehead. Just below this part of 
the skull we see two large openings for 
the eyes ; below and between these is 
the opening for the nose. At the lowest 
part of the face are the two jaws^ the 
upper and the lower ; each jaw has a 
row of teeth attached to it, and between 
these is the mouth. 

29. The skull rests upon the upper 
end of the backbone (Fig. 3), and is very 
movable, so that it can be turned in any 
direction. 

30. The Bones of the Trunk. — 
The bones of the trunk are the backbone 
behind, the collar-bones above and in 
front, the shoulder-blades above and be- 
hind, the breast-bone in front, the ribs 
on either side, and the hip-bones below. 

31. The Backbone (Fig. 6) consists of 
a large number of small bones placed 
one on top of the other, forming a col- 
umn along the middle of the back and 
joined to the skull above ; we can bend 
and twist it in any direction. If you 

run your finger along the middle of the back, you can 
feel the ends of the bones of which the backbone is 
formed. 

32. The Collar-bones (Fig. 7, C) are the curved bones 



Fig. 6.— The Back- 
bone. 



THE PARTS OF THE SKELETON. 



15 



which you can feel at the upper part of the chest in 
front. 

33. The Shoulder-blades (Fip. 7, 8) are the large flat 
bones which we feel at the 
upper part of the chest 
behind. 

34. The Breast - bone 
(Pig. 9) is a flat bone which 
forms a strong guard to 
the front of the chest. 
Along its edges the ribs 
are attached on each side. 

35. The Ribs (Fig. 9). 
There are twenty-four ribs, 
twelve on each side. They 
are long, slender, curved 
bones which form the out- 
er boundary of the chest, 
being joined to the back- 
bone behind, and most of 
them to the breast-bone in 
front. In tin's way the 
chest is formed. 

36. Below, the chest is 
separated by a flat sheet 
of muscle (Fig, 64) from 
another space called the 
abdorru n. 

37. The Hip-boneS (Fig. Fig. 7. —The Bones of the Upper 

TT . , ' -. Limb. /?, Breast-bone ; C\ Collar- 

8, H) are tWO large and bone; 4 Shoulder-blade; .4, Bone 

. ■ -i -i -I °f Ann; /', Bones of Forearm; \V, 

Strong DOnea placed be- Bones of Wife; //, Boms of Hand. 




16 



PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 




Fig. 8. 



tween the lower end of the back 
bone and the upper ends of the 
thigh-bones. 

38. The Bones of the Up- 
per Limb. — These are the bone 
of the arm, the two bones of the 
forearm, and the small bones 
forming the wrist and hand. 

39. T?ie Bone of the Arm (Fig. 
7, A) is a strong, single bone 
which extends from the should- 
er to the elbow. 

40. The Bones of the Forearm 
(Fig. 7, F). There are two bones 
in the forearm, placed side by 
side ; they extend from the el- 
bow to the wrist. 

41. The Bones of the Wrist 
and Hand (Fig. 7, W and H). 
Each hand may be divided into 
the wrist, the palm, and the 
fingers. Each part is formed 
of a number of small bones ; 
this arrangement gives great 
strength and allows us to move 

-The our fingers very freely. 

42. The Bones of the 



Bones of 

the Lower 

-^ Limb. B, 

the lower Lower Limb, — lhese comprise 



end of the 
Backbone; 
11, the Hip-bone ; T, the Thigh- 
bone ; K, the Knee-pan ; X, 
the Bones of the Leg ; Z\ the 
Bones of the Foot. 



the thigh-bone, the bones of the 
leg, the knee-pan and the bones 
of the foot. 



THE PARTS OF THE SKELETON. 17 

43. TJie Thigh-bone (Fig. 8, T) is the largest and 
strongest bone in the body. It extends from the hip 
to the knee. 

44. The Knee-pan (Fig. 8, K) is a small, round bone 
which can be felt at the knee ; it protects this part 
and often saves it from injury in falls and blows. 

4."). The Bones of the Leg (Fig. 8, L). There are two 
bones in each leg ; they are placed side by side from 
the knee to the ankle. 

46. The Bones of the Foot (Fig. 8, F). Each foot is 
formed by a large number of small bones. In the 
back of the foot we feel a projecting part called the 
heel. Just in front of the ankle is the rounded part 
known as the instep. In front are the five toes. The 
sole of the foot, between the heel and the toes, forms 
an arch which breaks the force of jumps or shocks. 
In jumping from a height, we should alight upon the 
toes and upon the soft cushion just behind the toes 
known as the ball of the foot ; when we reach the 
ground upon the heel, there is a disagreeable shock 
which is s^iit through the rest of the body and which 
may be injurious. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. luto what four parts can we divide the skeleton? 2. What is 
the skull? 3. Into what two parts can we divide the skull? 
•4. What openings are there in the skull? 5. What supports the 
skull ? 6. Name the bones of the trunk. 7. Where is the back- 
bone? 8. How is the backbone formed ? 9. Where is the collar* 
bone? 1<>. Where is the shoulder-blade ? 11. Where is the breast- 
bone? 12. Where are the ribs? 13. How many ribs are there? 
14. How is the chest bounded? 15. What cavity is there below 



18 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

the chest ? 16. Where are the hip-bones ? 17. What bones are 
there in the upper limb ? 18. How many bones are there in the 
arm? 19. How many in the forearm? 20. Into what parts can 
each hand be divided? 21. What bones are there in the lower 
limb? 22. Where is the thigh-bone? 23. How many bones are 
there in each leg ? 24. Where is the knee-pan and what is its use ? 
25. Where is the heel? 26. Where is the instep of the foot? 
27. What is meant by the sole of the foot? 28. In jumping 
from a height upon what part of the foot should we alight, and 
why? 



LESSON V. 
THE CAKE OF THE SKELETON. 

47. If we wish to have erect and graceful bodies 
when full-grown, we must take care of them while we 
are young. When growing, the bones are soft and 
easily shaped. The gardener will tell you that if he 
wants to change the growth of a tree and prevent its 
spreading in faulty ways, he must prop it up and 
bend it while it is young. 

48. Stand and Sit Erect, with the Chest 
Thrown Forward and the Shoulders Back. — 
Even at our desks we must sit up straight (Figs. 96 and 
97). When we read, the book must not be allowed to 
lie in the lap, for this tends to make us stoop ; it must 
be held in the hand at about twelve inches from the 
face. If we cannot read at this distance we probably 
need glasses, and it will then be well to consult an 
oculist. Care to avoid these faults will jwevent stoop- 
in g and round shoulders. 

49. Have you ever seen a regiment of soldiers march- 
ing through the avenue, upon some holiday, and no- 
ticed the fine, manly appearance which their straight, 
erect bearing gives them ! Would you consider it 
such a fine sight if the soldiers were stooping, round- 
shouldered, and bent \ Indeed not ! You must all 
try to grow up to be well-built men and women, so 



20 



PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



that you will have health and strength, and will each 
of you be able to add a little to the welfare of the 
world. 

50. Do not Wear Tight Clothing.— Clothing is 
intended to keep us warm and to protect us, but not 
to press upon any part of the body. Girls often have 




Fig. 9.— The Chest. 



Fig. 10.— A Deformed Chest, the 
Result of too Tight Clothing or 
Tight Lacing. 



misshapen chests because they have worn waists which 
were too tight or laced too tightly. ' The bones of the 
trunk form cavities for very important organs ; tight 
lacing crowds these organs so that they cannot do 
their work properly, and as a result the health suffers. 
51. Give the lungs every chance to expand and allow 
the heart to beat properly ; and do not crowd the 
stomach and other organs in the abdomen by tight 



THE CARE OF THE SKELETON. 



21 



lacing. Fig. 10 is the picture of a chest which has be- 
come deformed through tight lacing ; compare it with 
Fig. 9, the natural chest, and notice the difference. 
52. Wear Shoes of Proper Size and Shape.— 

If the shoes are too small, too pointed, or too narrow, 
the feet will become deformed, the toes bent and 
crooked, and painful corns and bunions will result 
(Fig. 12). 





Fin. 11.— A Natural Foot. 



Fig. 12.— A Foot which has Become 
Deformed and Affected with Corns 
and Bunions as a Result of Tight and 
Ill-fitting Shoes and High Heels. 



53. Avoid High Heels.— High heels crowd the 
fool into the front part of the shoe, thus making the 
toes overlap. They do not support the weight of the 
body properly, because they throw the upper part 
forward. They cause us to walk very awkwardly and 
thus add to the danger of injuring the ankle in falling 
and in other accidents. 

64. Breaking a Bone.— When a bone is broken 
the accident is quite serious and is called a fracture. 
The doctor is called and he set* the bone ; that is, he 
brings the two broken ends together. He keeps them 



22 PRIMAEY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

in proper position by fastening a piece of thin board 
to the limb so that the broken bone cannot be moved. 
When kept at rest in this manner, the two ends gradu- 
ally grow together. If you happen to break a bone, 
remember to keep as quiet as possible until the doctor 
arrives, so as not to move the injured part. 

55. Effects of Alcoholic Drink and of Tobac- 
co upon the Skeleton. — Drinks containing alcohol 
and the use of tobacco will prevent the bones from grow- 
ing to their natural size. Our skeleton grows until we 
have become men and women ; and if we wish to be 
large and finely built, we must take care of our bones 
during childhood. Anything which causes the health 
to suffer will interfere with the growth of the bones. 

56. Smoking Stunts the Growth.— Some boys 
smoke cigarettes because they very foolishly imagine 
that it makes them look big and manly. What a sad 
mistake ! Such boys do not grow to their natural 
size, for tobacco stunts the growth. It has other evil 
effects upon young persons about which we will read 
later on. But upon the skeleton the bad effects of 
tobacco are very marked. The boys who smoke ciga- 
rettes are usually the smallest in the class. 

57. The use of strong drinks, by which we mean 
those containing alcohol, has a similar effect. The 
bones of drunkards, if broken, do not unite as readily 
as do those of other persons. 



THE CARE OF THE SKELETON. 23 



QUESTIONS. 

1. Why is it very important for the skeleton to have proper care 
during childhood ? 2. What is the proper position in standing and 
in sitting? 3. What position should we assume at our desks? 
4. Where must the book be held in reading ? 5. What are the con- 
sequences of a faulty position in standing or in sitting ? 6. What 
injury results from clothing which is too tight? 7. What are the 
evil effects of tight lacing ? 8. What are the results of wearing 
shoes which are too small or too narrow ? 9. Why is it injurious to 
wear high heels? 10. What is a fracture? 11. What does the doc- 
tor do in the case of a fracture ? 12. What effect has the use of al- 
coholic drink upon the skeleton of the young? 13. What effect has 
the use of tobacco upon the growing skeleton? 14 What effect has 
smoking upon the growth of boys ? 



LESSON VI. 
THE JOINTS. 

58. The Use of Joints. — Wherever two or more 
bones meet, there is a joint. Joints are necessary in 
order that one part of the body may move indepen- 
dently of the other. If this arrangement did not ex- 
ist, we would have to move the entire body whenever 
we wanted to move any part of it. 

59. You may remember seeing boys on stilts or hav- 
ing used them yourself ; it may be great sport, but 
the motion is certainly very awkward. If your limbs 
had no joints, you would be compelled to walk in this 
same awkward manner. 

60. The handle of a pump is attached by means of a 
joint, and the swinging signs seen in front of stores 
furnish other familiar examples. 

61. The more joints there are in any part of the 
body, the more movable is that part. Notice, for in- 
stance, how movable and nimble the fingers are, and 
how many joints there are in the hand. Some joints 
permit very little motion, while others allow a great 
deal. 

62. Why the Joints of Machinery Must be 
Kept Oiled.— If two surfaces rubbing against each 
other were dry, they would soon be rubbed off ; hence 
it is necessary to keep the inside of the joints moist 



THE JOINTS. 



25 



All machines have a great many joints, and these re- 
quire oiling. The next time you go on a journey by 
train, get out of the cars at one of the larger stations 
and watch the men go along from one car to the other, 
pouring large quantities of oil upon the axles of the 
car-wheels. Even the deli- 
cate watch, the useful clock, 
and the swift bicycle require 
oiling from time to time. 





Fi'». 13. — One of the Joints Sawed 
through Lengthwise, thus Showing 
the Inside of the Joint. 



Fig. 14.— The Hip-joint, Showing the 
Bands of Tissue which Cover the 
Joint. 



63. How the Joints of the Body are Kept 
Moist. — In the living body the joints are not oiled, 
but the same thing is accomplished by a yellowish fluid 
in the Joint. 

64. How the Bones are Kept in Place. — The 
ends of the bones forming a joint are held in place 
and connected by strong* and tough bands of tissue, 
which act as a cover to the entire joint. In Pig. 13 
we see the inside of a joint ; in this space there is a 



26 PKIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

certain amount of fluid to keep the ends of the bones 
moist and to prevent friction. In Fig. 14 the outside 
of a large joint is shown, with its covering of strong, 
tough bands of tissue. 

65. Examples of Joints in the Human Body. 
— Notice how you can turn the head from side to side, 
open and close the mouth, and move the forearm up 
and down ; these are all examples of motion at joints. 

66. Tissues. — We have made use of the word tis- 
sue. What is a tissue % A tissue is one of the simple 
forms of material of which the different parts of the 
body are formed ; thus, the finger consists of bone, 
fat, muscle, skin, nail, etc.; all these are tissues. 

67. Accidents to Joints. — When one of the 
bones which forms the joint is not in its correct posi- 
tion and no longer fits on the end of the other, we say 
it is out of joint or dislocated. This accident is very 
painful. The strong bands of tissue on the outside of 
the joint are often torn. The bone must be put in 
joint again by the doctor. 

68. Sometimes the strong bands surrounding the 
joint are injured or torn, while the bones still keep 
their correct position ; this is known as a sprain. 

69. These accidents are usually the results of falls. 
Many such falls take place in getting off street-cars, 
especially if the car has not come to a full stop, and if 
the person does not remember to get off facing the 
driver. In all mishaps of this sort we must keep the 
injured part as quiet as possible until aid arrives. 



THE JOINTS. 27 



QUESTIONS. 

1. What is a joint? 2. What advantage is there in having joints 
in the body? 3. What would result if there were no joints? 4. 
Why must the joints of machinery be kept oiled ? 5. How are the 
joints in the body kept moist? 6. How are the ends of the bones 
forming joints kept in place? 7. Give some examples of joints in 
the human body. 8. What are tissues ? 9. Give an example. 10. 
What accidents may happen to joints? 11. What do we mean when 
We say a bone is out of joint or dislocated? 12. What is a sprain? 
13. How do these accidents usually take place? 




Fig. 15.— The Muscles of the Human Body (the Skin having been Removed) 



LESSON VII. 

HOW THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE BODY ARE 
MOVED.— THE MUSCLES. 

70. Now we will consider some of the tissues which 
cover the framework and fill up the spaces between 
the different parts of the skeleton. The first of these 
are the muscles. 

71. What Muscles Look Like. — Muscles are the 
red masses which we commonly call flesh (Fig. 16). 
What the butcher sells as meat is a mass of muscles 
from some animal. When we have roast beef for 
dinner, we are eating a large number of muscles from 
the ox. Muscles are of a blood-red color. Each 
muscle can be separated into reddish, threadlike fibres 
which are joined side by side. 

72. The Work of Muscles.— Muscles give us the 
power of moving the different parts of the skeleton. 
Our skeleton would be of very little use if we could 
not move the different bones. The sails of a ship 
would not answer their purpose unless there were 
ropes and pulleys to move and to fasten them. The 
ropes are to the sails what our muscles are to the dif- 
ferent parts of the body. 

73. The Ends of Muscles. — Muscles are very 
strong, but still they are too soft to be fastfwd 
directly to bone ; they would not hold. At eacli end 



30 



PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



muscles become changed into strong, tough cords ; by 
means of these they are fastened to the bones (Fig. 
16). Feel the thick part on the front of your 
arm ; you are feeling muscle. Then catch 
hold of your wrist and move your fingers 
and your hand ; you now feel the cords move 
quite distinctly. Some of these cords pass 
through the palm of the hand to be fastened 
to different parts of the fingers. 

74. Fat. — You probably all know what 
fat looks like. It is of a yellowish color. 
Muscles always have a little fat mixed with 
them. When free from fat we say meat is 
lean ; but even then a little fat is present. 
Besides this smaller amount, there is more 
or "less fat in layers between and covering 
the different muscles. 

75. The Muscles on the Outside of 
the Body Can be Moved at Will.— Most 

of the muscles of the body do not act unless we wish 
them to. They are therefore under the control of the 
will. They remain at rest until we desire to use them. 
This applies to all muscles on the outside of the body. 

76. Muscles Inside the Body are Not Under 
the Control of the Will.— The muscles which are 
inside the body act without our knowledge. Some of 
them act constantly and others only at certain times ; 
but in either case it is not in our power to prevent 
such action. Let us illustrate by examples : 

77. After we swallow our food it enters the stomach. 
Part of the wall of the stomach consists of muscle 



Fig. 16.— A 
Muscle. 



HOW PAPwTS OF THE BODY ARE MOVED. 31 

tissue, and this is brought into action by contact with 
the swallowed food ; the latter is moved and rolled 
about so as to be ground into finer particles. This is 
done without our knowing anything about it, and 
without our being able to hinder it. 

78. The heart furnishes another example. Day and 
night this organ, which is formed of muscle tissue, is 
at work pumping blood into the blood-vessels, to be 
carried all over the body. If we had to watch over 
the heart to see that it kept on beating, we would 
always have to stay awake ; and if we were careless 
and fell asleep, and the heart stopped because we 
were not directing it to keep on, life would cease at 
once. This shows how necessary it is for certain parts 
to continue at work without being directed by us. 

79. The Way in Which Muscles Act.— When 
a muscle acts, it causes some part of the body to move. 
If we watch a muscle while it is acting, we will see 
that it becomes shorter, broader, and thicker, and at 
the same time harder. You may have seen boys feel- 
ing the muscles of their arms ; when these muscles 
are big and hard, they will be very proud of them. 

80. Place your left hand upon the front of your 
right arm ; now close your right hand and bend the 
forearm upon the arm. You will find that the muscle 
on the front of the right arm becomes hard, swells up, 
and forms a lump. In doing this it becomes shorter, 
and, since it cannot break loose from its fastening to 
the bones, it must bring these bones nearer together ; 
in this way the forearm is bent upon the arm (Figs. 
17 and 18). 



32 



PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



81. How the Brain Directs the Muscles to 

Act. — The muscles on the outside of the body cannot 
act unless we direct them. The order to act comes 
from the brain, which is a very important organ con- 
tained in the box formed by the bones of the skull. 





)A 

Fig. 17.— ^4, a Muscle at Rest; £, Fig. 18.— The Action of the Muscle 

the same Muscle in Action. It of the Front of the Arm. (The 

has become shorter, broader, and dotted figure shows the effect upon 

thicker. the position of the forearm.) 

If the brain wishes a certain muscle to act, it sends it 
a message, and then the muscle obeys. The message 
goes from the brain through a soft, whitish matter in 
the backbone, called the spinal cord; then it is con- 
tinued by certain white threads, known as nerves, 
until it reaches the muscles. These muscles are there- 
fore only the servants of the brain. Without an 



HOW PA IMS OF THE BODY ARE MOVED. 33 

order from the brain, carried by the nerves, they could 
nor move. 

82. Muscles Vary in Size and Shape.— There 

are about six hundred muscles in the human body, 
and nearly all of them occur in pairs; that is, they 
are the same on the right side as on the left. Some of 
the muscles are very large, others are of moderate 
size, and still others are very small. They also vary 
in shape. Most frequently they are long bundles with 
a tough and strong cord at either end for fastening to 
the bones. But they may be flat, or like a fan, or 
square, or round. 

$'3. The Muscles of the Face. — All the different 
expressions of the face are produced by the actions of 
a number of small muscles which are found here. If 
you have a constant sullen and angry look, the face 
will soon have this expression, because the muscles 
become so accustomed to acting in this way that they 
cannot do otherwise. 



QUESTIONS. 

1. What does muscle tissue look like? 2. What is it commonly 
called ? 3. What use do we make of muscles ? 4. What can you 
^ay about the ends of muscles? 5. Why are muscles changed at 
their ends in tibia manner? 6. What is fat ? 7. How does it occur 
with muscle? 8. What two kinds of muscles are there ? 9. Can we 
more all muscles at will? 10. Which muscles are under the control 
of the will? 11. What is peculiar about muscles inside the body ? 
12. Give examples to show that muscles inside the body are not 
under the control of the will. 13. Why is it so very important that 
certain muscles continue to act without direction on our part? 14. 



34 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AKD HYGIENE. 

What part does the brain take in the action of muscles ? 15. How 
do muscles change when they act? 16. Give an example. 17. 
How do muscles vary in size ? 18. How do muscles vary in shape ? 
19. How are the muscles of the face connected with the different 
expressions ? 



LESSON VIII. 
THE CARE OF MUSCLES.— EXEKCISE. 

84. The muscles form such a large part of the body 
that they soon show changes whenever our health is 
poor. During sickness they waste away and become 
smaller. Even after being confined to bed for a few 
days we are surprised how weak we feel on getting up, 
and how difficult it is for us to stand. During this 
short period our muscles have become smaller be- 
cause we could not exercise them. In order to get 
strong muscles they must be worked or exercised. 

86. Strong Muscles. — Look at the arm of a 
blacksmith and see how large and strong his muscles 
are. How they stand out in lumps and cords ! This 
is because he is constantly using or exercising them. 
It is a fine sight to see a man who has large muscles 
which make him look strong and manly. Such a man 
is Dot bo apt to get sick as another; he feels stron- 
and is more useful in the world because of his 
Btrength. 

86. Proper Exercise is Necessary to Good 
Health. — You should all have plenty of exercise and 
this ought to be taken regularly. It is not enough to 
walk slowly to school each day ; if this is all the ex- 
ercisea person takes his muscles will become small 
and weak, and he will become delicate. Children 



36 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

should have at least two or three hours' exercise every 
day. The best exercise is that which is taken in the 
open air in playing with one's companions, because it 
rests the mind and develops the body at the same 
time. 

87. Good Forms of Exercise.— Walking fast, 
moderate running, rowing, swimming, skating, bicy- 
cle riding, and playing baseball, football, tennis, and 
croquet are all good forms of exercise. 

88. Calisthenics. — Calisthenics are very useful. 
They are light gymnastic exercises which not only de- 
velop the muscles and make them strong, but also 
help us to become graceful in our motions. 

89. Harmful Exercise. — Whatever the kind of 
exercise we must remember to stop when we begin to 
feel tired, for this is a sign that we have had enough and 
need rest. If exercise be continued too long it is 
harmful. Often we see girls jumping the rope— one is 
trying to outdo the other in the number of times she 
jumps without stopping ; many of the girls will be so 
tired that they can scarcely continue, and yet they go 
on simply to outdo their companions. They do them- 
selves great harm by this excessive exercise; even 
death has resulted from it. 

90. Avoid Violent Exercise.— We should also 
avoid all violent exercise, for this does more harm 
than good. When boys try to lift heavy weights 
which would be a task even for men, or to do too diffi- 
cult feats in the gymnasium, producing too great a 
strain upon the muscles, it only harms them instead 
of causing them to increase in strength. 



THE CARE OF MUSCLES — EXERCISE. 37 

91. Effects of Alcoholic Drink and Tobacco 
on the Muscles. — The muscles have no greater 
enemies than alcoholic drink and tobacco. This is so 
well known that all persons who prepare themselves 
for great feats of strength avoid the use of alcoholic 
drink and do not smoke. What alcohol is will be ex- 
plained in another lesson. It will be sufficient to say- 
here that all those drinks, like beer, wine, and liquor, 
which cause men to become intoxicated, contain al- 
cohol and are called alcoholic drinks. 

92. Athletics. — Boys, you probably all take an 
interest in athletic sports. It is well that you should, 
for these sports are very good when indulged in mod- 
erately. One of you is the fastest runner in the class, 
another can jump farther than any other boy, and still 
another can jump higher than the rest. There is prob- 
ably quite a little rivalry among you as to which boy 
shall excel in these sports. You will always find that 
those boys who take plenty of exercise, who go to bed 
early and get plenty of sleep, eat plain food, and spend 
much of their time out in the open air, are the ones 
who can outrun and outjump the rest. The cigarette 
smokers are always among the last, because they 
poison the system with tobacco and injure the health 
in this way. 

93. Alcoholic Drinks Change Muscle Tissue 
into Fat. — Alcoholic drinks are the enemy of muscle 
because they change it into fat; when a muscle con- 
tain< much fat, it becomes soft and weak. Look at 
some of the men who drink a great deal of beer and 
Other alcoholic drinks, and notice how weak and soft 



38 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

their muscles are. They may look big, but this is due 
to fat and not to muscle ; and though they look large, 
they are not strong. If they tried to run a race with 
men who had good, strong, healthy muscles, they 
would become tired and have to give up very soon. 

94. The heart is formed of muscle tissue, and some 
of this changes to fat in the drunkard and in those 
who take a great deal of alcoholic drink. Such a 
heart cannot beat so strongly as it should ; it becomes 
weak. The blood is then no longer pumped into the 
small canals which carry it to various parts of the 
body as it ought to be. You can easily imagine how 
much the body must suffer in consequence of this. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. How does the condition of our health affect the state of our 
muscles ? 2. "What happens when we do not use our muscles ? 3. 
What effect has exercise upon our muscles ? 4. How much exercise 
should children have every day ? 5. Where is the better place to 
take this exercise, in the open air or in- doors ? 6. What is the best 
kind of exercise for children ? 7. Mention some of the good forms 
of exercise. 8. What are calisthenics ? 9. What effect has exercise 
when it is continued too long ? 10. What effect has exercise which 
is too violent ? 11. What effect have alcoholic drinks and tobacco 
upon the muscles? 12. What do you mean by alcoholic drinks ? 
13. Which boys usually excel in athletic sports ? 14. What can 
you say about the strength of boys who smoke cigarettes ? 15. 
Why are alcoholic drinks injurious to muscles ? 16. What effect 
has alcohol upon the muscle tissue of the heart ? 



LESSON IX. 
CALISTHENICS. 

95. Calisthenics are light gymnastic exercises, use- 
ful to both boys and girls, intended to increase the 
sin ngth and to promote grace and beauty. 

96. The exercises shown in the following figures are 
suitable for children, either in classes at school or 
singly at home. None of them will be found difficult, 
and none will overtax the moderate strength of a 
child. 

97. Each exercise may be repeated from three to six 
times before proceeding to the next ; but they are to 
be stopped before any actual fatigue is felt. After 
each exercise the child is to assume the first (Atten- 
tion or Rest) position. 

They are made more interesting when performed 
in class to the accompaniment of music. A slower 
time should be observed in exercising the head and 
trunk than with the limbs. 

Dumb-bells for children should be of wood, 
light in weight, and of such a size that a child can 
easily grasp them. 

loo. The wand is a straight piece of wood, three- 
quarters of an inch to an inch thick, lis length should 
!>♦* snch that it extends from the floor to the nose of 
the child who uses it. 



40 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



SIMPLE BODY EXERCISES. 







Fig. 19. 



Fig. 20. 



Fig. 21. 



Fig. 22. 



Fig. 19. — Attention Position. The position of rest between all the simple 
body exercises. 

Fig. 20. — Hands closed. Upper limbs bent at elbow. Forearm brought 
forward at a right angle to arm. 

Fig. 21. — Forearm bent upon arm so that closed hand touches front of 
shoulder-joint. 

Fig. 22. — Forearms crossed in front of chest. Hands open. 





Fig. 23. 



Fig. 24. 



Fig. 25. 



Fig. 26. 



Fig. 23. — Upper limbs extended and palms of hands brought together in 
front of body. 

Fig. 24. — Upper limbs extended and palms of hands brought together be- 
hind body. 

Fig. 25. — Upper limbs extended to the side, at right angles to the body. 
Hands closed. 

Fig. 26. — Arms extended to the side. Forearms bent upon the arms so that 
finger-tips touch the top of shoulder-joints. 



CALISTHENICS. 



41 



SIMPLE BODY EXERCISES— Continued. 




:=&f 





Fig. 28. 



Fig. 29. 



Fig. 30. 



Fig. 27. — Wrist motion. Arms extended from sides of body. The open 
hand i> raised and dropped. 

Fig. 2S. — Upper limbs extended in front of body. Hands closed. 

Fn;. 29. — Upper limbs extended above head. Hands closed. 

Fig. 30. — Upper limbs extended above head. Hands open. Swing forward 
to sides of body. 




Fir,. 31. 



Fig. 32. 



Fig. 33. 



Fig. 34. 



Fig. 31. — Upper limbs are swung from the sides of the body upward so that 

■fans of the hands meet above the head. 
Fi<- ppoited upon the hips. Head is inclined to OD€ 

and then to the • 

Pig. '■■■'■ llv Left upper limb is extended apwsxd end forward 

and left lowet limb ii thrown forward, while right apper limb ii extended 
: backward and right lower limb remains behind Then rerei 
Pig. '-A— Forward bend. Body bent at hip bo that the fingera tonoh the 
knees. 



42 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



SIMPLE BODY EXERCISES— Continued. 







Fig. 35. 



Fig. 36. 



Fig. 37. 



Fig. 38. 



Fig. 35. — Attention or Rest Position. 

Fig. 36. — Hands resting upon hips. First one and then the other lower 
limb is brought forward and bent at knee. 

Fig. 37. — Hands resting upon hips. First one and then the other lower limb 
is brought forward without being bent at knee. 

Fig. 38. — Hands resting upon the hips. The leg is bent backward upon the 
thigh. 







Fig. 39. 



Fig. 40. 



Fig. 41. 



Fig. 42. 



Fig. 39. —Tiptoe motion. Hands resting upon the hips. The entire body 
is raised upon the toes. 

Fig. 40. — Hands resting upon the hips. Entire lower limb is raised to the 
side. 

Fig. 41. — Hands resting upon the hips. One lower limb is thrust forward 
and then drawn backward, the feet remaining upon the floor. Alternate right 
and left. 

Fig. 42. — Hands resting upon the hips. One lower limb is thrust forward 
and bent at the knee, the other is pushed backward. In this position the body 
is swung backward and forward. Alternate right and left. 



CALISTHENICS. 



43 



DUMB-BELL EXERCISES. 







Pre. 43. 



Fig. 44. 



Fig. 45. 



Fig. 46. 



Fig. 43. — Attention or Rest Position. 

PlG. 44. — Dumb-bells are brought across the front of the chest. 

FlG. 45. — Dumb-bells are brought together in front of body. Upper limbs 
extended. 

Fig. 46t — Arms extended from sides of body and forearms bent upon arms 
bo that dumb-bells touch the top of shoulder-joints. 




Pre. it. 



Pre. 4a 





Fig. 50. 



Fn». 47. — Upper limbs extended at right angles from sides of body. 

Fig. 18L— Upper limbs are extended behind body and domb-bells brought 
together. 

Pia lOl— Upper limbe are brought forward and extended above tbeb 
that dumb-belli tench. 

•One dnmb-beU is lifted apward and forward, and the other 
puah» ird and backward. Alternate right and lefi 



44 



PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



WAND EXERCISES. 






Fig. 51. 



Fig. 52. 



Fig. 53. 



Fig. 54. 



Fig. 51. — Attention or Rest Position. 

Fig. 52. — Wand held vertically in front of the right, and then the left, side 
of the body. 

Fig. 53. — The upper hand grasping wand is raised above the head. 

Fig. 54.— The wand is held in front of chest ; one upper limb is extended 
the other is bent at the elbow. 




Fig. 55. 



Fig. 56. 



Fig. 57. 



Fig. 58. 



Fig. 55. — The wand is held in front of the body on a level with the upper 
part of thighs. 

Fig. 56. — The wand is raised to the level of the neck. 

Fig. 57. — The wand is raised above the head, both upper limbs being ex- 
tended. 

Fig. 58. — The wand is raised above the head and then lowered behind the 
head to the back of the shoulder. 



LESSON X. 

GROWTH AND REPAIR. 

101. Growth. —We are sure most of you have 
noticed how the plants and trees grow, and how they 
increase in size from year to year. Several years ago, 
one particular tree which stood directly in front of the 
house in which you lived may have been of small size ; 
now it has grown to be large and strong, and its 
branches spread in every direction. And when you 
noticed this tree for the first time, you were probably 
a little bit of a tot ; since then you have become tall- 
er and heavier. You will say that you have grown. 
This is quite true. Each part of your body has be- 
come larger and stronger, and each part of you will 
continue to increase in size and strength until you are 
a full-grown man or woman. 

102. Repair. — But you must not imagine that dur- 
ing all this time there were no changes taking place in 
your body except additions. While you were growing, 
your body was being constantly used up and replaced 
by new parts. When you have stopped growing and 
have become a man or woman, this process of wearing 
out and of repair will continue. 

103. The different parts of machinery become used 
up and new parts must be pul in the place of the old ; 
we say thai the machine needs repairing. Nothing 



46 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

which is without life can be used for any length of 
time without becoming worn out. 

104. In the living body, the worn-out particles are 
replaced at once. The process of repair keeps pace 
with the process of wearing out. Hence we do not 
notice that the different parts of the body are being 
used up. 

105. Why the Different Parts of the Body Be 
come Worn Out.— When night comes we feel tired. 
Why? Because the different parts of the body are 
worn out and require repair. The muscles and bones 
have been used during the day in exercise, the lungs 
in breathing, and the heart in supplying the body with 
blood. All these parts could not work indefinitely 
without having new strength given to them. 

106. How the Different Parts of the Body are 
Repaired. — The different parts of the body are made 
strong and new by means of the blood. In another 
lesson we will be told about this important fluid ; how 
it is pumped into various parts of the body and how 
it carries nourishing juices to the tissues. 

107. How the Blood is Supplied with Nour- 
ishment. — You might ask where the blood gets its 
supply of nourishing material. The answer is that it 
gets it from what we eat and drink. It becomes 
loaded with repairing material from our food and 
drink. Of course the food has to be changed very 
much before it can mix with the blood. At certain 
times of the day we are in the habit of taking our 
meals. Nature tells us when the blood needs more 
nourishment by making us hungry and thirsty. 



GROWTH AND REPAIR. 47 



QUESTIONS. 

1. What evidences are there that the bodies of children are con- 
stantly growing-? 2. What is meant by the process of repair in the 
human body? 3. What happens to objects which have no life, 
which are in constant use? 4. Why must the different parts of 
machinery be replaced or repaired from time to time? 5. Why do 
we fail to notice that the different parts of the living body are con- 
stantly being used up? 6. Why do the different parts of the body 
become worn out? 7. In what manner are the tissues repaired? 
B. How is the blood supplied with nourishment? 9. What is the 
real meaning of our becoming hungry and thirsty? 10. Can the 
food be taken up directly by the blood without any change ? 



LESSON XI. 
THE FOOD OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 

108. Food and Drink are Essential to Life. 

— Without food and drink we could not live ; the tis- 
sues would become used up and worn out, and there 
would be nothing with which to repair them. We 
often hear of people fasting for a long time. It has 
happened that persons have lived for a few weeks 
without food, but never without drink. 

109. It is easy to see why this must be so. Even 
when we are as quiet as possible, the different tis- 
sues of our body are constantly changing and being 
changed into material which is waste and must be cast 
off. We must breathe, and our heart must beat, and 
both of these are actions which require nourishment 
from the blood. If the blood did not get a supply of 
this from our food and drink, it could do no repair- 
ing. As a result, the tissues would soon waste away. 
The person would then die from weakness, because 
both blood and solid tissues would become changed 
so much that they would be unable to do the work 
which it is necessary for them to do. 

110. Difference in the Food of Plants and 
Animals. — The food of plants is quite different from 
that of animals. You may say that you do not see 
plants taking any food, but it is easy to prove that 






THE FOOD OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 49 

they require food and drink just as animals do, only 
of a different kind. Suppose you took a growing- 
plant from the ground and locked it up in some closet 
in your house, where it would have neither soil nor 
sunshine nor water; you know very well that it would 
not thrive ; it would wither and finally die. 

111. The Food of Plants The food which 

plants require consists of air, the gases contained in 
the air, moisture from the ground, and certain mineral 
silts. These salts are in the soil and are dissolved by 
the moisture, which is then taken up by the roots. 
Besides these, almost all plants require sunshine. 

112. The Food of Animals. — Animals need more 
food. These things, which we have just read are 
sufficient for plants, are entirely too simple for ani- 
mals to exist upon. If you tried the experiment of 
feeding your pet dog upon nothing but water, air, and 
salts, you would find that he would become very thin 
and weak, and would soon starve to death. 

113. Difference in the Food of Various 
Classes of Animals.— Some animals live almost 
entirely upon fleshy food ; that is, meat ; the cat, the 
dog, the lion, and the tiger are examples of flesh-eating 
animals. 

114. Other animals exist upon vegetables, grass, 
grain, and the like ; the cow, the horse, and the rab- 
bit are examples of this class. 

115. Man belongs to neither of these two classes ; he 
combines the two ; he requires both fleshy food (meat) 
and vegetable food \ and in addition he must also have 
water and mineral salts. 



50 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



QUESTIONS. 

T. Why must we take food and drink? 2. What would happen if 
we took no food or drink for any length of time ? 3. Why must 
the body die if it cannot get food and drink ? 4. Describe the food 
upon which plants live? 5. How can you prove that plants require 
certain food ? 6. Is sunshine necessary for the life of plants ? 7 
Can animals exist upon the same food as plants ? 8. Can all ani- 
mals exist upon the same kind of food ? 9. What kind of food do 
the dog and cat require? 10. What are flesh-eating animals ? 11. 
What kind of food do the cow and horse require ? 12. Could man 
exist upon flesh alone or upon vegetables alone ? 13. What kinds 
of food does man require? 



LESSON XII. 
OUR FOOD. 

116. There are many kinds of food. Some food is 
rich in nourishment and some contains very little. 

117. Food which is Easily Digested. — Some 
of the food is very simple, and we say it is light or eas- 
ily digest* d. This means that it gives the stomach 
very little work in changing it into fluids which can 
pass into the Wood and thus be carried to the different 
parts of the body. Examples of such food are milk, 
beefsteak, roast beef, soft-boiled eggs, boiled mutton, 
boiled rice, and bread. 

118. Food which is Difficult to Digest.— Other 
kinds of food give the stomach much work and are 
therefore considered difficult to digest, heavy, or indi- 
gi stible. As examples of such we might mention 
pork, pies, tarts, plum-pudding, and cheese. 

119. Food which we Never Tire of. — There are 
some kind- of food, such as bread, milk, eggs, and 
roast beef, which we seem never to tire of. These are 
usually simple and easily digested. 

130. Milk. — The milk which we use in this country 
is obtained from the cow ; in some other countries it is 
also obtained from the goat and other animals. Milk 
is one of the best articles of food and is very easily 



52 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

digested. It contains everything in the nature of 
nourishment which we need; hence we could live 
on it without any other food. Children should take 
milk with every meal. 

121. Butter.— The fatty part of the milk, the cream, 
floats on top after the milk has been standing for a 
.^*3K<r>- ^ me# When milk is churned the fat- 
globules, of which the cream consists 




y (Fig. 59), stick together. In this way a 

^^^||^|^ mass is formed ; this is called butter. 

%^P^^ 122. Eggs.— Eggs are obtained from 

3ttfc»&* t ] le ^ en They are very useful as food. 

Fig. 59.— A Drop of _ _ . „ , T . , 

Milk Seen under Part of the contents or the egg consists 
Showingth^Fat- of a yellow, fatty substance, called the 
globules (Cream). ^^ ^ ^ ^^ f orms the white of the egg. 

123. Bread. — Bread is a very important article of 
food, on which account it is often called the staff of 
life. It is made from flour. In America, this is usu- 
ally wheat ground up fine. The baker takes flour and 
adds water and a little salt, and with these he makes 
the dough. He also adds yeast, and will tell you that 
he does this to make it rise, so that it will be light and 
easy to digest. What does the yeast do % It changes 
some of the starch so that a gas is given off. This gas 
escapes in bubbles, but cannot get through the dough; 
in trying to work its way out, it puffs out the dough 
and makes it light and porous. The dough is then 
put in the oven and baked, a hard crust forming on 
the outside. 

124. Starch. — The greater part of bread consists of 
starch. Starch is found only in vegetable food — that 



OUR FOOD. 53 

is, food produced by plants. Examples of vegetable 
food containing starch are wheat, corn, rye, barley, 
rice, oats, and potatoes. Grass and hay also belong 
to this class. 

126. Man could not eat hay, since his stomach is 
not arranged so that he could digest it ; but the ox 
eats hay, which is converted in his body into nutri- 
tious materials from which his flesh is formed, and the 
latter is then eaten by man. 

126. Starchy food cannot be digested in the raw 
condition ; it must first be boiled before it can be used 
as food. Man would not think of taking oatmeal raw, 
but only after it had been boiled; then it forms a very 
useful food. A bowl of oatmeal should form part of 
your breakfast every morning. 

127. Sugar. — Another form of vegetable food has a 
large quantity of sugar in it. Besides this, we add 
some of this substance to sweeten certain kinds of 
food. Sugar is nourishing and does no harm if not 
taken in too great an amount. 

L28. Creen Vegetables. — It is necessary for good 
health that we eat green vegetables, as peas, spinach, 
string-beans, salad, and the like. When deprived of 
these for any length of time the blood becomes poor 
and the body suffers. 

129, Fat and Fatty Food. — We need a certain 
amount otfat or fatty food. This explains our put- 
ting butter upon bread. In the body, starchy and 

gary food is changed into fat, and this is why we 
say that potatoes, bread, and the like are fattening. 

130. Fruit. — The various/V// //.v are useful as food. 



54 PEIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

They contain but little nourishment, but serve to in- 
crease the appetite and to help the stomach in its 
work. Care must be taken in selecting fruit, so that 
it is neither unripe nor overripe. 

131. Fleshy Food. — By fleshy food is meant meat. 
whether from the ox, sheep, or other animals of this 
class, or from fishes. 

132. Meat and Fish. — There are a great many 
different kinds of meat. Beef is used more than any 
of the others. Besides beef from the ox we use lamb, 
mutton from the sheep, veal from the calf, porlc and 
liam from the pig, and venison from the deer. Under 
this head also come chicken, turkey, and other fowl ; 
also the various birds. Fish is a very useful form of 
fleshy food, and is usually quite easily digested. 

133. Salt.— It is necessary for us to take a certain 
amount of salt with our meals. Most of our food con- 
tains some ; but in addition we are in the habit of 
adding salt, either in cooking or when the food 
reaches the table ; when this is forgotten, our food 
tastes flat. 

134. Methods of Cooking. — Sometimes we eat 
our food raw; as, for instance, fruit. But usually we 
cook it, because it becomes more digestible and tastes 
better. In cooking we may make use of a great many 
different plans. If it is meat, for instance, we may 
put it into water and boil it ; or if we let it get a little 
thicker, we stew it. We maj^ put it into the pan with 
some fat and fry it ; this is not a good way of prepar- 
ing meat because it covers it with a fatty layer which 
is very difficult to digest. By holding it directly to 



OUtt FOOD. 55 

the fire we broil it or roast it. Finally, by putting it 
into the oven, we bake it. Of all these different meth- 
ods, boiling, stewing, and broiling, are most to be 
recommended, because they make the food most easy 
to digest. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What do you mean by food that is easily digested ? 2. Give 
a number of examples of such food. 3. What do we mean by food 
which is difficult to digest ? 4. Give a number of examples of such 
food. 5. Give a number of examples of food which we seem never 
to tire of. 6. From which animal is milk usually obtained? 7. 
Why is milk one of the best articles of food ? 8. Could we exist on 
milk alone? 9. What part of the milk does the cream represent? 
10. What is butter ? 11. What can you say about eggs as food ? 
12. Of what two portions does an egg consist ? 13. What is bread 
often called on account of its importance? 14. How is bread 
made ? 15. Why is yeast added ? 16. How does the yeast make 
the bread light and porous ? 17. Of what does the greater part of 
bread consist? 18. In what kind of food is starch found? 19. 
Give a number of examples of vegetable food containing starch. 
£0. How must starchy food be prepared before it can be digested 
by man? 21. What can you say regarding the value of oatmeal as 
an article of food? 22. In what way is sugar taken into the body? 
23. Why are green vegetables necessary to health? 24. Give a 
number of examples of green vegetables. 25. Why do we put but- 
ter upon our bread? 26. Why is food containing starch and sugar 
said to be fattening ? 27. What are the uses of fruit ? 28. What is 
meant by fleshy food? 29. Mention a number of the different kinds 
of meat. :>(). What can you say of fish as an article of food? 81. 
What can yon say regarding the necessity for salt? 32. Mention 
some of the different methods of cooking. 33. Why do W6 usually 
cook our food? 34. What are the besf methods of cooking meat ? 
36. What objection is there to frying? 



LESSON XIII. 
THE WATEE WHICH WE DEINK. 

135. Water is Necessary to Life. — Water is even 
more necessary to life than is food. A person could 
live longer without food than without drink. The 
great drink and the only one necessary for life is 
water— pure water. Three-fourths of the weight of 
the body is water ; if you weigh eighty pounds, sixty 
pounds are water. From this it will be easy to under- 
stand why water is so essential to life. 

136. Much of our food contains water, for we do 
not take any in a perfectly dry form. Soup and milk 
contain a great deal of water, and a large amount 
exists in meat and vegetables. 

137. But besides water in this form, we drink con- 
siderable with our meals, and again whenever we feel 
thirsty. 

138. Thirst. — Feeling thirsty means that the body 
requires water. It is Nature's signal for water, just 
as hunger is the signal for food. As a rule, we should 
drink enough water to satisfy this thirst. Water 
should be swallowed slowly — a mouthful at a time, 
and not gulped down. It is of especial importance to 
remember thk during meals, 

139. Pure, Cool Water. — There is no drink which 



THE WATER WHICH WE DRINK. 57 

is so refreshing as pure, cool water. If the drinking- 
water be warm, it is best cooled by filling bottles and 
laying these upon the ice. If we drink iced water, no 
harm will usually be done if it is taken slowly. 
When the body is heated great harm, and even dan- 
ger may result from drinking a gobletful of iced 
water very rapidly. 

140. Tea, Coffee, Chocolate, and Cocoa.— 
Much of the liquid which wedrink we take in the form 
of tea, coffee, chocolate, and cocoa. Grown people, while 
not usually harmed by tea and coffee, sometimes make 
themselves nervous by drinking too much or in too 
strong a form. Both tea and coffee are injurious to 
children, for whom milk and water are the best drinks. 
Cocoa and chocolate contain considerable nutritious 
fatty matter and are therefore more of a food ; 
tea and coffee are only stimulants — that is, they excite 
the body for the time. Children do not need stimu- 
lants of any kind. 

141. Our Drinking-water. — Water is the great 
drink, and it is very necessary that it be pure. Clear 
water is not always pure ; water may be very impure 
and still be very clear and transparent. And again, 
water may look a little cloudy, and yet be perfectly 
innocent and healthy. What makes some water 
unhealthy and injurious is poison dissolved from the 
soil. In cities, where the water is brought from a dis- 
tance in pipes, this poison is not apt to occur; but 
where the water from wells is used, it is often present. 
In the country, very often no other water can be 
obtained except that From the well; for convenience 



58 



PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



sake, the well is built near the house and the stable ; 
it is then very apt to be poisoned. 
142. How Well-water may Become Poisoned. 

— Fig. 60 illustrates very nicely the manner in which 
well-water may become poisoned. It is a good ex- 
ample of what occurs constantly in the country. An 
examination of this picture shows the following : To 




Fig. 60.— The House and the Well, as often Found in the Country. The shad- 
ing extending from the stable to the layer of rock at the bottom of the well 
shows the course of the poisonous material from the stable, with its manure- 
heap and pig-pen, to the well. 

the right is the dwelling-house; to the left is the 
stable with its manure-heap and pig-pen ; between 
these two is the well. The surface of the ground is 
fairly level, and is sandy, and beneath this is gravel. 
The rain soaks into the porous ground, and in doing 
so dissolves poisonous matters from the manure-heap 
and the pig-pen, and after it has soaked into the 
ground it remains there, since there is a layer of rock 



THE WATER WHICH WE DRINK. 59 

below, which will not allow the water to pass. This 
poisoned water collects here, and then gradually enters 
the lower part of the well. When water is drawn 
from the well it will be easily understood that it is 
partly the same water which has passed over and 
through the manure-heap and the dirt of the pig-pen 
before passing into the ground. The shading extend- 
ing, on the figure, from the stable to the bottom of 
the well, shows the course which this poisoned water 
takes. Such water causes typhoid fever and other 
diseases. 

143. How to Avoid Poisoning of Our Drinking- 
water. — The water of a pure river should be pre- 
ferred to that of a well. But sometimes we have no 
choice and must drink well-water. In this case we 
should see that the well is thirty feet or more from 
any inhabited building, and that no refuse or slops of 
any kind are allowed to soak into the ground. Such 
refuse should be kept in water-tight barrels and carted 
off regularly. If we are in doubt about whether the 
water is good or not, we may boil it thoroughly ; this 
destroys the poison. In addition to boiling, it is well 
to let drinking-water pass through a filter, which 
takes out many impurities. 

144. Poisoning from Leaden Pipes. — Water 
which has stood in leaden pipes all night dissolves a 
little of the lead ; hence when we require water in the 
morning we should allow it to run a few minutes 
before using any. 



60 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



QUESTIONS. 

1. What is the great drink and the only one necessary for life ? 
2. How much water is there in the human body? 3. Do we 
take any of our food 7 absolutely dry ? 4. Mention examples of food 
containing a large proportion of water. 5. What is the meaning of 
the feeling of thirst ? 6. How should we drink water ? 7. What 
is the best manner of cooling drinking-water? 8. What precaution 
must we take in drinking iced water? 9. What can you say of tea 
and coffee as drinks for grown persons ? 10. What can you say of 
tea and coffee as drinks for children ? 11. How do cocoa and choc- 
olate differ from tea and coffee ? 12. What is a stimulant? 13. Do 
children need stimulants ? 14. Is clear water always pure ? 15. Is 
cloudy water always injurious ? 16. What makes some drinking- 
water unhealthy and injurious? 17. Why does poisoned water 
occur less frequently in the city than in the country ? 18. How 
may well-water become poisoned ? 19. How can we avoid poison- 
ing in our drinking-water? 20. How can drinking-water be made 
safe, if we are in doubt as to whether it is good or not ? 21. How 
may water become poisoned from leaden pipes ? 22. How can we 
avoid danger from this source ? 



LESSON XIV. 
HOW THE FOOD IS CHANGED IN THE STOMACH. 

145. The Work of the Organs in the Abdo- 
men is to Digest the Food. — The food must be 
changed into a liquid before it can mix with the 
blood. Tiiis is done by the organs in the abdomen 
and is called digestion. Hence the work of the stom- 
ach and other organs of the abdomen is to digest the 

fond. While being changed in this way, the food 
passes through a number of hollow organs (Fig. 61). 

146. After being chewed and swallowed, the food 
passes down a tube in the neck, called the gullet, to 
reach the stomach. A considerable part of the food 
is changed here and proceeds farther, together with 
the portion which the stomach has refused to digest. 
These different portions of the food next reach the 
bowels or intestines. All these different parts are 
seen in Fig. 61. We will now commence with the 
mouth, and follow the food through its changes in 
one part after the other. 

147. The Mouth — This is the space between the 
two jaws. The food is chewed here and is mixed with 
a fluid called the saliva. Some animals, like dogs 
and cats, swallow thp food whole; but man is ex- 
pected to chew it fine. For this purpose the teeth 
are provided. 



62 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

148. The Teeth. — The teeth are supported by the 
jaws and occur in two rows, an upper and a lower 
(Fig. 62). 

149. The Teeth of Children.— All the teeth of 
young children fall out ; they are only temporary, and 




p IG# 61. — The Organs in the Abdomen in which the Food is Prepared for the 

Blood. 



HOW FOOD IS CHANGED IN THE STOMACH. 



G3 



hence are called temporary or milk teeth. There are 
U u of these in each jaw, making twenty altogether. 




Fig. 62. — The Upper and Lower Jaws, with the Teeth, of a Grown Person. 

150. The Teeth of Crown Persons. — In the 

sixth year, or before, the temporary teeth begin to 
fall out ; and after the sixth year others grow to take 
their places. These are stronger and there are more 
of them. They are called the per ma- 
Turd teeth; and there are sixteen in 
each jaw, making thirty - two alto- 
ir^ther. 

151. The Parts of a Tooth — The 
port of the tootli which you see in the 
mouth is called the croion ; the part 
which is buried in the gums is called 
the root or roots. Teeth are composed 
of a very hard, white material which 
contains a great deal of lime. Those 
in front have very sharp edges for cutting the food, 
and biting it into pieces. Those placed behind are 




Fig. 63.— A Tooth 
Sawed through 
Length wise, 
Showing the 
Crown and the 
Roots. 



64 



PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



broader and very strong, and serve to grind the food 
into small particles. 

152. Care of the Teeth.— Teeth are natural orna- 
ments when nice and healthy ; they are very disfigur- 
ing when dirty or decayed. They should be 'brushed 
every morning upon rising, and every night before re- 
tiring ; they should be kept clean at all times. Par- 
ticles of food which lodge between the teeth should 
be removed with toothpicks of wood or quill — never 
with pins, needles, or metallic points. Teeth are apt 
to decay and cavities form, if the 
general health becomes poor, also 
if much improper food be taken ; 
by improper food is meant a great 
many pickles, much candy and 
cake, and food which is difficult to 
digest or too sour. Teeth should 
not be used to crack nuts with, nor 
for anything but chewing. When 
cavities have formed in the teeth, 
the dentist fills them with gold or 
silver foil so as to prevent them 
from decaying more. 

153. Smoking, or the vulgar habit 
of chewing tobacco, discolors the 
teeth and makes the breath offen- 
sive. 

154. The Cavities of the 
Trunk of the Body. — You may 

remember that in a previous Lesson it was stated that 
the trunk of the body contains two large cavities or 




Fig. 64.— The Cavities 
of the Trunk of the 
Body. Above is the 
cavity of the chest. 
Below is the cavity of 
the abdomen. The 
diaphragm is seen sep- 
arating the two. 



HOW FOOD IS CHANGED IX THE STOMACH. 



65 



spaces (Fig. 64) : An upper one, the chest, in which the 
heart and lungs are placed, and a lower one, the ab- 
d&men, in which the organs of digestion are placed. 




Fig. 65. — The Stomach, Showing the Outer Surface. 

These two spaces are separated by a layer of mus- 
cle tissue, called the diaphragm — a long word which 
means & partition. Just below the diaphragm is the 
Btomach. 

166. The Stomach.— The stomach (Fig. 65) is a 
bag about a foot in length, and has an opening at 
either end : one for the entrance of food from the 
gullet, the other to allow the food to pass on after 
the stomach lias done its work; this second opening 
leads into the bowels or intestines. 

166. The outside of the stomach is smooth and 
shining so that it can glide easily over the other or- 
gans (Pig. 66), The inside of the stomach is soft, 
like velvet, and arranged in folds (Fig. 66). There is 



66 



PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



a good deal of muscle tissue in the walls of the stom- 
ach which gives it the power to move the food about 
and to grind it fine. 

157. The Juice of the Stomach. — Whenever 
food reaches the stomach, drops of fluid escape from 
its soft lining ; this fluid is called the gastric Juice, 
which means the juice of the stomach. It is formed 
by thousands of little tubes which we find in the walls 
of the stomach (Fig. 67). 




Fig. 66. — The Inner Surface of the Stomach. 

158. The Work of the Stomach-— The work of 

the stomach is to digest the food and to grind it fine. 
It does not digest all the food, but only the fleshy 
part of the food— the meat The rest of the food, the 
starchy and fatty portions, are changed farther on in 
the intestines. 

159. Effects of Tobacco on the Stomach.— 
When a person smokes tobacco for the first time it 



HOW FOOD IS CHANGED IN" THE STOMACH. 



67 



makes him sick at his stomach. He may get used to 
the tobacco after awhile; but still, if he smokes too 
much, he has the same disagreeable feeling. Many 




87.— The Little Tabes of the Stomach in which the Gastric Juice is 
Made. Seen with the microscope. 

- make the stomach weak and delicate, and 
the appetite, by smoking and chewing tobacco. 
Effects of Alcoholic Drink on the Stom- 
ach.— Alcoholic drink reddens the lining of the stom- 
ach and irritates it. After awhile it hardens it, thins 
ir. and renders it unfit to digest the food properly. 

QUESTIONS. 

1- ^ le work of the organs in the abdomen? 2. Where is 

[nto I to carry the 

l Into what oach lias 

I v Wl ; va? 6. 01 whal use are the 



68 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

teeth ? 7. How many rows of teeth are there ? 8. How many teeth 
are there in children ? 9. How many teeth are there in full-grown 
persons? 10. Why are the teeth of children called temporary 
teeth? 11. What is the crown of a tooth? 12. What is the root 
of a tooth ? 13. Of what are teeth composed ? 14. W^hat is the 
difference in the shape and in the uses of the teeth in the front of 
the mouth and those in the back of the mouth? 15. How should 
the teeth be taken care of? 16. What happens if we neglect the 
teeth ? 17. What will cause the teeth to decay ? 18. What effect 
have smoking and chewing tobacco upon the teeth? 19. What 
cavities are there in the trunk of the body ? 20. What separates 
the cavity of the chest from that of the abdomen? 21. What is 
the shape of the stomach ? 22. What openings has the stomach ? 
23. Why is the outside of the stomach smooth? 24. Wliat appear- 
ance has the inside of the stomach ? 25. Of what use is the muscle 
tissue in the walls of the stomach ? 26. What is meant by the gas- 
tric juice ? 27. How is the gastric juice formed ? 28. What is the 
work of the stomach? 29. What effects has tobacco upon the 
stomach? 30. What effects has alcoholic drink upon the stomach? 



LESSON XV. 



THE FINAL CHANGES IN THE FOOD SO THAT IT CAN 
MIX WITH THE BLOOD.— THE INTESTINES AND LIVER. 

161. The Bowels or Intestines. — The bowels or 
intestines consist of a long, hollow tube, about twen- 
ty-live feet in length, commencing at the stomach. In 
order that this long tube may find room in the ab- 
domen, it is folded many times around a stem which 
is attached to the backbone. 

162. The intestines have the same coats as the 
stomach. They are smooth and 
shining on the outside, soft and vel- 
vety on the inside, and between 
these two coats there is muscle 
tissue. 

163. Motion of the Intestines. 
— The intestines are in constant mo- 
tion in a slow and creeping manner, 
just like a worm. This is for the 
purpose of causing the food to move 
on. There are a great many ridges 
which run across the lining of the 
intestines (Fig. 68); these prevent 
the food from passing along too 
rapidly ; in this way it will have plenty of time to 
mix with the blood. 




Fig. G8.— The Inner Sur- 
face of the Intefltines, 
Showing the Etidgee. 



70 PBIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

164. The Work of the Intestines. — The portion 
of the food which the stomach has changed, and the 
remnants which the stomach refuses to digest, pass 
into the intestines. Here the starchy and fatty food 
is digested. In the walls of the intestines there are a 
great many minute vessels in which the blood flows. 
What we have eaten is finally converted into a soft, 
creamy liquid, which enters these small tubes, and, 




Fig. 69.— The Liver. 

mixing with the blood, is carried to different parts of 
the body to serve as nourishment. 

165. Openings in the Intestines. — At the upper 
part of the intestines, just below the stomach, we find 
two openings. One of these comes from the liver, and 
the other from the pancreas. 

166. The Liver.— The liver (Figs. 61 and 69) is a 
large and important organ. It is placed on the right 
side of the upper part of the abdomen. It is smooth 
on the outside. If we cut into it, we find that it is 
formed of small cells, like cubes, packed one against 



THE FINAL CHANGES IN THE FOOD. 



71 





Fig. 70.— The Cells of which 
the Liver is Formed, as 
seen with the Microscope. 



the other (Fig. 70). These cells are so small, that we 
must use a microscope in order to see their form. 

167. The Microscope. — This instrument is con- 
stantly used in studying the 
liner structure of different parts 
of the body. Probably every 
one knows what a magnifying- 
J5 is, and has seen it used 
for making objects look larger. 
Perhaps, too, many of you have 
brought the rays of the sun to- 
gether into a small spot on your 
h a n d and 
found how 

this burns. On this account the 
magnify ing-giass has been called a 
burning-glass. Such a magnifying- 
glass makes objects appear five or 
six times as large as they really are. 
If several very strong magnify ing- 
glasses are placed one over the other 
in a metal tube (Fig. 71), objects 
looked at through all of them will 
appear a hundred, or even a thou- 
sand, times larger than they really 
are. This arrangement is called a 
microscope. 

168. The Bile.— The cells of the 
liver prepare a greenish or brown- 
ish fluid called the bile. This fluid passes into the 
from the liver, and mixes with the food. 






71.— The Micro- 



72 PKIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

Although we are not certain what the bile does to the 
food, we do know that it is an important and neces- 
sary fluid. 

169. The Liver Purifies the Blood.— Besides 
furnishing the bile, the liver also purifies the blood. 
A great deal of blood passes through the liver and is 
purified in this way. 

170. The Pancreas. — The pancreas (Fig. 61) is not 
a very large organ, but it is very important. It pre- 
pares a fluid which assists in the digestion of the food 
after it has passed into the intestines. The pancreas 
of the calf is sold by the butcher as sweetbread. 

171. The Unhealthy Liver. — Many sicknesses are 
caused by changes in the liver. If we eat too much at 
a time, or eat food which is too rich, as many wealthy 
people do, the liver becomes diseased and does not 
remove the impurities of the blood as it should ; and 
these then remain in the blood and give much trouble. 
Perhaps some of you have seen old gentlemen limp 
along with the aid of a cane, unable to walk well 
because their big toes are swollen and sore ; they then 
have gout from too rich food, too much wine, and too 
little exercise. 

172. The Drunkard's Liver. — The liver suffers 
very much as the result of alcoholic drink. It some- 
times grows too large, and sometimes gets too small. 
The blood cannot flow through it as it should ; and so 
the liver cannot do its work properly. Thus the entire 
body suffers, and the most serious symptoms trouble 
the unfortunate man who leads the life of a drunkard. 



TIIK FINAL CHANGES IN THE FOOD. 73 



QUESTIONS. 

1. What is another name for the bowels? 2. How long are the 
intestines? o. To what are the intestines attached and how? 4. 
What appearance have they on the outside and what on the inside? 
5, What can you say of the motion of the intestines? 6. What is 
the object of this motion ? 7. What prevents the food from passing 
along too rapidly ? 8. Why is it necessary that the food pass along 
slowly? 9. What is the work of the intestines? 10. What kinds 
of food are changed in the intestines? 11. Into what are our meals 
finally converted in the intestines ? 12. How does this mix with 
the blood? 13. What openings are there into the intestines? 14. 
Where is the liver? 15. Of what is it formed? 16. What is a 
microscope ? 17. What are the uses of a microscope? 18. What 
is the bile? 19. Where is the bile formed ? 20. What do we know 
concerning the uses of the bile? 21. What other work does the 
liver accomplish besides furnishing the bile? 22. What is the work 
of the pancreas? 23. What is the pancreas of the calf known as? 
24, What causes an unhealthy liver? 25. How does the liver suffer 
as the result of large quantities of alcoholic drink? 



LESSON XVI. 
HOW TO ENJOY GOOD DIGESTION. 

173. Take Food at Regular Times in the Day. 

— Usually three meals a day are enough. 

174. Do Not Eat Rapidly When the food is 

eaten too rapidly it cannot be chewed properly, and 
the result is that it is swallowed in large pieces. The 
stomach has great difficulty in digesting these large 
pieces and thus poor digestion results if the practice 
be continued. This is what the doctor calls dyspepsia. 

175. Do Not Eat Too Much at a Time.— This 
gives the organs of digestion too much work to do, 
and on this account all the food cannot be digested. 
We should not continue to eat until we feel heavy and 
uncomfortable. 

176. Do Not Eat Improper Food nor Too 
Many Sweets and Sours. — While a pickle oc- 
casionally at meals, or candy or cake now and then, 
will do no harm, if these things are taken constantly 
they are injurious, because they destroy the appetite 
for nourishing food. Girls who eat too much candy, 
or too many pickles, usually have very little appetite 
for any proper food, and soon become pale and deli- 
cate. And boys who eat green apples before they are 
ripe, in summer, or unripe fruit of any kind, are sure 



HOW TO ENJOY GOOD DIGESTION. 75 

to repent it ; they are apt to become sick and to have 
great pain in the stomach. 

1??. Do Not Chew Cum. — This wastes the saliva 
and makes it so thin that it does not act as it should. 
Besides the habit is a vulgar one. 

ITS. Do Not Drink a Large Amount of Ice- 
water. — A little iced water, taken slow T ly, will do no 
harm, whether during meals or at other times ; but 
to drink down a gobletful rapidly when the body is 
heated is very harmful, as it chills the stomach and 
interferes with digestion. 

179. Avoid Violent Exercise Immediately 
After a Meal. — This should not be indulged in, for 
at that time the stomach needs all the blood it can 
get. Violent exercise drives too great a proportion 
to tlit- muscles. 

lso. Do Not Study Directly After a Meal. 

181. Do Not Bathe within Two Hours After 
an Ordinary Meal. 

182. Avoid Excitement Just Before a Meal. 
Excitement of any kind, whether good news or bad 

news, usually takes away our appetite. If we eat, 
nevertheless) the food will not be digested, or only 
very imperfectly. 

183. Alcoholic Drink makes the food less digest- 
ible especially if it be strong drink; it also irritates 
the stomach needlessly. 

184. Smoking will destroy the appetite and inter- 
wit h digestion with many persona 



76 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

QUESTIONS, 

1. How many meals a day are usually enough ? 2. Why should 
we not eat rapidly? 3. What is dyspepsia ? 4. Why should we not 
eat too much at a time ? 5. What harm does improper food cause ? 
6. What frequently happens to children who eat much candy or 
many pickles ? 7. What is the effect of eating unripe fruit ? 8. 
What objections are there to chewing gum ? 9. What precaution 
should be taken in drinking ice-water? 10. Why is violent exercise 
immediately after a meal injurious ? 11. Is it well to study directly 
after a meal? 12. How long should we wait before bathing after a 
meal? 13. Why is excitement just before a meal harmful ? 14. What 
effect has alcoholic drink upon the food ? 15. How are the appetite 
and digestion of many persons affected by smoking ? 



LESSON XVII. 



LIFE'S FLUID.— THE BLOOD. 



185. If you cut your finger, a red fluid escapes, 
which you call blood. If the cut be a slight one, only 
a little Mood will be lost, and the accident will not 
worry you much : but if it be deeper, you may have 
trouble in stopping the bleeding, and you would feel 
alarmed, for everyone knows how important the blood 
is. It is called life s fluids and it deserves the name ; 
for if one-quarter of the blood is lost, life would be 
in danger; and if one-third were lost, certain death 
w<»uld result. 

L86. Appearance of Blood. — Blood is a thin 
fluid of a red color. Sometimes it is bright red, at 
other times it is of a dark red color. 
ence exists will be explained later. 
thia red color, the fluid part of the 
blood is not red, but yellowish. It 
looks red because there are a great 
many small red bodies floating in 
ir. These we call the blood-glob- 
al, $, 

187. The Blood-globules.— 
If we take a drop of blood and 

'k at it under the microscope, we ran easily see 
these blood-globules (Pig. 72). Even in a small drop 



Why this differ- 
Al though it has 




Fig. 72. 



The Blood- 
globules. 



78 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

of blood, there are about ten millions of them, wliicli 
will give an idea of the great number there must 
be in the entire body. Most of these small bodies 
are of a reddish color and flattened. But there are 
a few which are white and perfectly round. We call 
both the red and the white ones globules because 
of their shape, the word globule meaning a little 
sphere. 

188. Uses of the Blood.— We have already been 
told that the blood carries nourishing material to dif- 
ferent parts of the body. In exchange for this it re- 
ceives waste material, which it takes to certain organs 
— the lungs, skin, and kidneys, which get rid of it. 
But the blood has another very important use, to ex- 
plain which it will be necessary to say something 
about the air we breathe. 

189. The Air. — The air is made up principally of 
two gases : one-fifth is a rich gas called oxygen. It is 
the gas which is necessary for life. The rest is a gas 
called nitrogen, which serves to dilute the oxygen so 
that it may not be too rich, but just right for breath- 
ing. 

190. The Pure, Bright Red Blood.— When we 
take air into our lungs, it stays there a short time and 
gives up some of the oxygen to the impure blood. In 
the lungs there are a great many small blood-vessels. 
The oxygen passes through the thin walls of these, 
and the blood flowing along takes it up. This serves 
to purify the blood, and changes it to a bright red 
color. After the blood has taken up this valuable 
gas, it carries it to different parts of the body and gives 



life's fluid.— the blood. 79 

it to the tissues which have become used up, so that 
they become built up again. 

191. The Impure, Dark Red Blood. — When 
the different tissues of the body are being used up, 
they give off a poisonous gas which is called carbonic 
acid gas. The blood which contains this gas is im- 
pure and of a dark red color. Such blood is purified 
in the lungs. Here the gas passes through the walls 
of the blood-vessels and escapes into the air. This is 
the reason why the air which we breathe out is not so 
pure as that which we breathe in. 

192. Clotting of the Blood.— While the blood 
is in the body, and in the vessels through which it 
usually moves, it is fluid. But if taken from the 
body, and placed in the air, it very soon becomes 
thicker and thicker, and finally is a soft solid, about 
as thick as jelly, called a clot. 

193. The Clotting of Blood is Very Impor- 
tant. — This thickening or clotting of blood is of the 

latest importance. If it were not for this we would 
have to bleed to death every time we cut ourselves. 
For when we inflict a wound the blood flows until a 
crust forms. This crust is a clot; it stops the bleed- 
ing. 

194. Bleeding. — If we hurt ourselves in anyway 
and the bleeding is slight, it will usually stop of itse^ 
or after we apply a little court-plaster. Bleeding 
from the nose occurs frequently; it is usually harm- 
less and stops of its own accord; if troublesome, it 
may be checked by pressing the finger against the 
side of the nose for a few minutes. But suppose we 



80 



PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



receive a deep cut and the blood flows freely and we 
cannot stop it, what shall we do until the doctor ar- 
rives? We should press upon the injured part just 
above the cut, or tie a string around it instead of press- 
ing with the finger. For instance, if it is the tip of 
the finger which is bleeding very much, we can tie a 
string around the finger an inch or so above the cut, 




Fig. 73.— Method of Checking Bleeding from a Large Wound. 

and this will stop the bleeding. If it is a larger part, 
as the arm or the forearm, tie a handkerchief around 
the limb above the injury and tighten this by means 
of a stick put under the handkerchief, and twist until 
it is very tight (Fig. 73). 

195. Fainting. — When a person becomes pale and 
would fall if he did not hold on to something, we say 
he has fainted. The proper thing to do for such 
a person is to lay him down perfectly flat. There 



LIFE'S FLUID. — THE BLOOD. 81 

should be no pillow underneath the head. If possible, 
the head should be even lower than the rest of the 
body so that the blood may run into the head and fill 
the blood-vessels of the brain; for the usual reason 
for the fainting is that the heart becomes weak and 
has not sufficient force to send enough blood to the 
brain. It is also important that no crowd should 
gather around the person, so that he can get all the 
air possible. The limbs should be stroked or rubbed 
toward the trunk, so as to help along the flow of 
blood. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What other name is sometimes given to the blood on account 
of its importance? 2. What happens if the body loses a large 
amount of blood ? 3. What does blood look like ? 4. Why does 
blood appear red? 5. What are the blood-globules ? 6. Are they 
vtrv abundant? 7. What is the appearance of the blood-globules 
under the microscope? 8. What are the uses of the blood? 9. 
What does the blood do with the nourishing material ? 10. What 
does the blood do with the waste material ? 11. Of what gases is 
the air made up principally? 12. Which is the more useful gas ? 
13. What happens to the air when we take it into our lungs ? 14 
How does the oxygen get into the blood-vessels? 15. What does 
the blood do witli this oxygen ? 16. What is the difference in color 
ween the pure and the impure blood? 17. What is carbonic 
acid gas? 18. Where does the impure blood get this carbonic acid 
! 19. [a it harmless or poisonous? 20. What becomes of the 
carbonic acid gas winch the blood has taken from the tissues? 21. 
What is meant by the clotting of the blood? 22. Of what great 
importance is the clotting of the blood? 23. How can we stop the 
bleeding from a wound of large si/.*? 24. What i^ meant by faint- 
ing? 25. What should be done to a person who has fainted? 




Fig. 74. — The Blood-vessels. In the right half of the figure the arteries are 
shown ; in the left half, the veins. 



LESSON XVIII. 

BOW THE BLOOD IS FORCED THBOUGH THE BODY.— 
THE HEART AND BLOOD-VESSELS. 

L96. Thus for we have been speaking of the blood 
itself. Now we will study how the blood flows through 
the body, for our blood is constantly mooing. This 
we can Bee very well in the frog (Fig. 75). If we 




—The Blood in Motion, as Seon in the Small Blood-vessels of the 
Prog's Foot. 

take some part of the frog, as, for instance, one of the 
thin parts of the foot, and spread it out and look at 
it under the microscope, we shall see tin* blood in 
motion. If we examine the thin part of the frog's 
in this way we shall seea Dumber of tubes, and 



84 



PKIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



in the centre of each tube a moving fluid full of small 
round bodies, the Hood- globules. This motion has 
been given to the blood by the heart. 
197. The Heart — The heart (Figs. 76 and 77) is the 




Fig. 76. — The Heart in its Natural Position. On each side the lungs are seen. 
Above, the large vessels spring from it. In order to see all this the front 
of the chest is represented as having been removed. 

most important organ in the body. It is placed in the 
chest, between the lungs, and is covered in front by 
the breast-bone. It projects beyond the breast-bone 
on each side, but more to the left than to the right. It 
is shown in its natural position in Fig. 76. 



HOW BLOOD IS FORCED THROUGH THE BODY. 85 

19S. The heart is shaped like a cone, with the wide 
part above and the point below. If the hand be placed 
upon the front of the chest on the left side, the beat- 
ing of the heart can be felt. 




Fig 77. — The Heart (the Front has been removed), Showing the Interior. 

199, The heart is surrounded by a loose sac. Its 
walla are formed of muscle tissue. It is hollow so as 
to have spaces for the blood (Fig. 77). There are four 
such spaces, separated by partitions ; two Bpaces are 
on the Left side of the heart and two on the right >ide. 



86 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY A1STD HYGIENE. 

200. The Work of the Heart.— The heart serves 
to pump the blood into the blood-vessels with such 
force that it flows all through the body. The walls of 
the heart are made of muscle, and this muscle is con- 
stantly contracting ; each time it contracts we say it 
beats. When it does this, the whole heart becomes 
smaller, and its cavities become smaller, and thus the 
blood is forced out. The heart then expands again 
and becomes wider, and the blood flows in until the 
heart becomes filled. These actions are being con- 
stantly repeated. The heart beats about seventy times 
per minute. 

201. The Course which the Blood Takes.— 
Let us follow the blood as it passes out of the heart, 
and study where it goes and how it finally reaches the 
heart again. The dark or impure blood all passes to 
the right side of the heart and is pumped into tubes 
which carry it into the lungs. Here it is led into the 
very finest tubes and meets the air ; it takes oxygen 
from the air and gives to it the poisonous carbonic acid 
gas. Thus in passing through the lungs it has become 
purified, and it changes from a dark red to a bright 
red color. 

202. The purified blood then leaves the tiny tubes 
and enters larger ones which carry it back to the heart. 
But this time it passes to the left side of the heart. 
When the heart contracts the next time this purified 
blood is pumped into vessels which carry it to the dif- 
ferent parts of the body. 

203. The Arteries.— Those blood-vessels which 
take the purified blood from the heart and distribute 



HOW BLOOD IS FORCED THKOUGH THE BODY. 87 

it to all parts of the body are called arteries. The 
blood-vessels which return the impure or used-up 
blood from the tissues to the heart are called veins. 
Between the smallest arteries and the smallest veins 
are the very finest blood-vessels, which are called cap- 
illaries. So that the blood, after being purified, 
passes through arteries, then capillaries, then veins. 

204. How the Arteries Divide.— Each large ar- 
tery soon divides and subdivides, and these branches 
pass in many different directions, constantly giving 
off smaller branches. A tree forms a very good exam- 
ple of how the arteries run in the body ; the large 
trunk of the tree corresponds to the large artery 
which leaves the heart, and the branches of the tree 
correspond to the branches of this artery. 

806. The Pulse.— When you are sick, and the 
doctor is called, one of the first things he does is to 
I your pulse. He will put his finger upon your wrist 
and he will take out his watch. He is counting your 
pulse. If you put your finger upon your own wrist, 
in front, on the side on which the thumb is, you will 
feel something heating. This is an artery, and the 
beating you feel is your pulse. Every time the heart 
heats the arteries beat, and this gives what is called 
the pulse. This will be understood if it be remem- 
bered that every time the heart contracts it pumps 
blood into the arteries, and every time another heart- 
ful of blood is forced into the arteries, being elas- 
tic, they expand and grow wider. It is this ex- 
pansion which is fclr with your finger, and which is 
called the pulse. When the doctor counts the pulse 



88 PKIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

he can tell how slowly or how rapidly the heart is 
beating ; for the pulse is the same in number as the 
heart-beats. The reason we usually take the pulse at 
the wrist is because it is most convenient ; but there is 
a pulse in every artery of any size in the whole body. 
You can feel one at your temples, one at the side of 
your neck, and in many other places. 

206. The Capillaries.— These are the very small- 
est blood-vessels, and they connect the arteries with 
the veins. We find the capillaries almost every- 
where. They are so small that we cannot see them 
without the use of the microscope. If you scratch 
yourself and a little blood comes, this is from some of 
the capillaries, not from an artery or vein ; for if an 
artery or vein is injured it is more serious. It is while 
the blood is passing through the capillaries from the 
arteries to the veins that the tissues take from it 
the oxygen and give up to it the poisonous car- 
bonic acid gas. And after this change has taken 
place, the blood is impure and its color changes 
from bright red, as it was in the arteries, to a dark 
red. 

207. The Veins.— After the blood has passed 
through the different tissues by means of the capilla- 
ries, these unite to form the smallest veins, and many 
of these join to form larger ones, until finally we have 
a single large vein, just as we had a single large 
artery. But there is this difference : the artery 
started from the heart and went to the tissues ; the 
veins start in the tissues and gradually join into 
larger ones which go to the heart. The arteries, too, 



HOW BLOOD IS FORCED THROUGH THE BODY. S9 

contain bright red, pure blood ; the veins are filled 
with dark red, impure blood. 

906. How to Have a Good Circulation If we 

wish to be in good health, the flow of blood must be 
brisk. Another name for the flow of blood is the cir- 
culation. If it be sluggish, we are apt to suffer in all 
parrs of the body, because no part gets as much blood 
as it should. Exercise is the great medicine for a 
good circulation. Any good form of exercise will an- 
swer, but exercise in the open air is the best, because 
while we are making our blood go faster, we are also 
getting more oxygen to the tissues and building them 
up quicker. 

309. Effects of Alcoholic Drink upon the 
Heart and the Circulation. — Alcoholic drink 
passes into the blood and irritates the heart, and as a 
result the heart may become too large. It might be 
thought that there would be no objection to having 
the heart too large, but this is not so. For when the 
heart is not of the right size it does not act properly 
and sickness results. The heart of a drunkard often 
contains a Large amount of fat, which weakens it, and 
it then has not power enough to force the blood into 
the arteries properly, and the different parts of the 
body receive too little blood and become pale and 
thin. 

:2\<K You may have noticed the flushed face which 
some people have after drinking. This is because the 
alcohol drives the blood into the blood-\<ss. Is of the 
-kin ; tlii< takes blood from other parts which are 
in')].' important, and these suffer. 



90 PKIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

211. The arteries of the confirmed drunkard may 
become so changed as to be brittle. When this 
change takes place in the arteries of the brain they 
are liable to rupture. This is called apoplexy, and it 
often causes the person to fall down dead. Of course 
apoplexy may occur in persons who are not drunk- 
ards, but it does occur often in drunkards. 

212. Effects of Tobacco upon the Heart. — 
The use of tobacco very often affects the heart and 
causes it to throb so that the person feels it and is 
very much annoyed by it. This is called palpitation 
of the heart. It often causes the heart to beat too 
quickly and then too slowly ; sometimes too strongly 
and then too weakly. All these effects are so com- 
mon that such an irregular heart due to tobacco is rec- 
ognized by doctors as tobacco heart. Of course, the 
circulation cannot be carried on properly if the heart 
acts so irregularly. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What is the most important organ in the body ? 2. Where is 
the heart situated ? 3. What is the shape of the heart ? 4. Where 
can we feel the beat of the heart? 5. By what is the heart sur- 
rounded? 6. Of what kind of tissue are the walls of the heart 
formed? 7. Is the heart solid or hollow? 8. What usually fills 
these spaces in the heart? 9. What work does the heart perform? 
10. What do we mean when we say the heart beats ? 11. What 
does the heart do when it beats ? 12. About how often does the 
heart beat per minute ? 13. Describe the course which the blood 
takes. 14. Where does the impure blood pass to from the right 
side of the heart ? 15. Where from the lungs after it is purified ? 
16. Where does the purified blood next go from the left side of the 



HOW BLOOD IS FORCED THROUGH THE BODY. 91 

heart? 17. What are the arteries? 18. How do the arteries 
divide? 19. What is meant by the pulse ? 20. Where do we usu- 
ally take the pulse, and why ? 21. How can we feel the pulse ? 22. 
What is the cause of the pulse ? 23. What are the capillaries ? 24. 
What changes take place in the blood while it is passing through 
the capillaries ? 25. What are the veins? 26. What sort of blood 
do the veins contain ? 27. What sort of blood do the arteries con- 
tain ? 28. What is the circulation ? 29. What happens when the 
circulation is sluggish ? 30. What effect has exercise upon the cir- 
culation ? 31. What kind of exercise has the most beneficial effect 
upon the circulation? 32. What are the effects of alcoholic drink 
upon the heart ? 33. What is the flushed face after drinking due 
to? 31. What is apoplexy? 35. What are the effects of tobacco 
upon the heart in some persons? 36. What is meant by a tobacco 
heart ? 



LESSON XIX. 
THE VOICE.— HOW WE PEODUCE 'SOUNDS AND TALK. 

213. Respiration.— Another name for breathing is 
respiring, and hence the act -of breathing is called 
respiration. When air is taken into the lungs we 
breathe in or inspire; when the air passes out again, 
we breathe out or ^xspire. 

214. How the Air Reaches the Lungs.— When 
we inspire, the air first passes through the nose, then 
into the throat, next into the larynx, the organ in 
which sounds are produced ; then it passes through a 
tube running down the front of the neck, called the 
windpipe, and this leads to the lungs (Fig. 79). 

215. The Larynx. — The larynx is the organ which 
produces sound. It is a triangular box, with stiff, 
hard walls (Fig. 78). It is placed at the upper end and 
front part of the neck, and can readily be felt just be- 
low the chin. This pointed part is called Adanr s apple. 

216. The Vocal Cords.— If we look into the lar- 
jnx we will find that there is a sort of shelf project- 
ing on each side, and that these two shelves can be 
moved ; sometimes they move toward the middle and 
meet each other, at other times they separate, and 
then there is a large space between them. They are 
called the vocal cords, because they produce the 
voice-sounds by their motion. 

217. How Sounds are Produced. — Previous to 



THE VOICE. 



93 



making a sound we always take a deep breath. Then 
this air is blown out again ; as it passes through 




Fig. 78.— The Larynx and Windpipe. 

the larynx, between the vocal cords, it makes these 
vibrate, and through the rapid motion of the vocal 
cords sound is produced. 



94 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

218. It depends very much upon Low the vocal 
cords are placed what kind of sound is produced. If 
the vocal cords are brought closely together and are 
made very tight the sound will be high. If you could 
look into the larynx of a lady with a soprano voice, 
while she is singing, you would find the vocal cords 
very close together ; if, on the contrary, the sound is 
produced while the cords are farther apart and less 
tense, the sound will be low, like that of a bass voice. 

219. Speaking. — Although sound is produced in 
the larynx, it is changed by other parts, principally 
the throat, the mouth, the tongue, and the lips. These 
change the sound so that words are spoken. With 
the vocal cords alone we could make sounds as in 
singing ; but to speak, we must change these sounds 
by means of the parts already mentioned. For in- 
stance, in pronouncing the word paper, the manner in 
which the lips come together will be noticed ; if the 
word law be pronounced, the tongue will touch the 
top of the mouth. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What is another name for breathing ? 2. What is the mean- 
ing of the word inspire ? 3. What is the meaning of the word ex- 
pire ? 4. What is the meaning of the word respiration ? 5. 
Through what parts does the air pass in reaching the lungs ? 6. 
What is the larynx ? 7. What is its shape ? 8. Where is it situ- 
ated? 9. What are the vocal cords ? 10. Of what use are the vocal 
cords ? 11. How are sounds produced ? 12. If the vocal cords are 
brought tightly together what kind of a sound is produced ? 13. 
How is sound changed so that words can be spoken ? 14. What 
parts change the sound in speaking ? 15. Give an example. 



LESSON XX. 



BREATHING.— THE WINDPIPE AND LUNGS. 



230. The Windpipe. — If the finger be passed 
along the front of the neck, from the larynx down- 
ward, a hard tube can be felt and traced down to the 
top of the breast-bone ; then it can no longer be felt, 
for it passes behind this bone into the chest. This 
hollow tube is called the windpipe (Figs. 78 and 81). 
It serves to conduct the air to the lungs after it has 
passed through the nose, 
throat, and larynx. Af- 
ter reaching the chest, 
the windpipe divides into 
two tubes, one of which 
carries the air to the right 
lung and the other to the 
left lung (Fig. 81). 

221. How Food is 
Kept Out of the 
Windpipe.— The wind- 
pipe is placed 111 front Of Fig. 79.— The Air-passage and the Food- 
, m passage. The heavy line shows the 

UI6 tube through which course of food through the mouth, 
■ . throat, and gullet. The dotted line 

9eS into the shows the course of air through the 
m a i T/ . , -, nose, throat, larynx, and windpipe. 

stomach. If you look at 

79, you will see that the food must pass across 
the larynx and windpipe. You may wonder why it 




96 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



Fig. 80. — The Heart and Lungs. On each side the lungs are seen. In the 
centre is the heart. The striped tube above is the windpipe. 

does not fall into these parts. Nature has provided 
against this. 

222. At the upper part of the larynx there is a sort 
of cover, shaped like a leaf, which is pressed down so 
as to close the larynx whenever we swallow. If any- 
thing should happeji to get past this cover, the vocal 
cords would close tightly and thus protect the wind- 
pipe. 

223. Sometimes the food is swallowed unexpectedly, 
and the vocal cords forget to close ; then we say the 
food has gone down the wrong way. This is very dis- 
tressing, causing coughing until the piece of food is 
dislodged. In speaking or laughing during meals, 



BREATHING.— THE WINDPIPE AND LUNGS. 



97 



care should be taken that the mouth is empty ; other- 
wise this accident may happen. 

224. The Lungs.— The lungs are the organs with 
which ice breathe. The entire lung may be divided 
into halves, a right lung and a left lung (Fig. 80). 
The lungs and the heart fill up the entire space of the 
chest. On the outside the lungs are covered by a 
sheet of smooth, shining membrane, which also lines 
the inner surface of the chest ; in this manner the 
lungs can rub against the walls of the chest without 
pain or friction. 

225. Each lung is shaped like a cone, with the point 
above and the broad part below (Fig. 81). 




PlG, 81. — The Larynx, Windpipe, and Lungs. The lungs have been cut 

Open to lhow the way in which the tabefl from the windpipe branch. 



98 



PEIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 




226. What the Lungs Consist of.— The lungs 
are very light. If we cut into them, we find a large 
number of tubes and spaces containing air. 

227. After entering the lungs, the tubes which leave 
the windpipe divide again and 
again, becoming smaller, until 
finally the branches have be- 
come so minute that they can 
no longer be seen without the 
microscope (Fig. 81). 

228. Each of these minute 
tubes then ends in a little bag 
containing air (Fig. 82). The 
walls of these air-spaces are 
very thin and contain many 
tiny blood-vessels. 
-Like the beating of the heart, 
breathing takes place without the use of our will-power. 
It continues whether we are asleep or awake. It is pos- 
sible to breathe faster than usual for a little while, or to 
hold the breath for a very short period, but not for long. 

230. Usually we breathe about twenty times per 
minute. When we take a breath, the lungs become 
filled with air and expand ; when we let out the air, 
the lungs again become smaller. 

231. Why Breathing is Necessary to Life. — 
The object of breathing is to purify the blood. In 
breathing the blood takes oxygen from the air, and in 
exchange it gives it the poisonous carbonic acid gas, 
moisture, warmth, and a second poisonous gas which 
will be described shortly. 



Fig. 82.— One of the Air- 
spaces of the Lungs. 

229. Breathing. 



BREATHING. — THE WINDPIPE AND LUNGS. 99 

232. The moisture which the air receives from the 
blood can easily be seen if you breathe upon the win- 
dow-pane ; and in winter you can notice the moisture 
in the air which we expire, because it becomes visible 
as soon as it meets the cold air. You can easily con- 
vince yourself that the air which we breathe out is 
warmer than that which we inspire ; this is because it 
has taken some of the heat from the blood. 

233. The Air of Crowded Rooms.— When we 
breathe out, the air takes from the blood a certain 
poisonous gas which has a disagreeable odor. The 
exact nature of this unnamed gas is not known ex- 
cept by its smell. If you come from the open air into 
a crowded room you find it disagreeable to breathe 
for a little while, because the air does not seem fresh ; 
you call it close, and if it is very bad, } t ou say it is 
fold. It is fortunate that this exceedingly poisonous 
gas has a bad smell, for otherwise we would not know 
that the air was no longer fresh and needed chang- 
ing. If we stay in such a close room we no longer 
notice the smell, because we have become accustomed 
to it. 

234. Always Breathe Through the Nose and 
not Through the Mouth. — In breathing, the air 
should be drawn through the nose and not through 
the month (Fig. 79). Many children breathe through 
the mouth ; this is an injurious practice which re- 
sults in keeping the mouth open constantly, giving 
rise to a stupid ^xprpssion of the face, and allowing 
the air ro reach the lungs before it has been properly 
warmed. 



100 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

235. Do not Wear Tight Clothing About the 
Chest or Waist. — Tight clothing or tight lacing 
presses upon the chest, and does not allow the lungs 
to expand as they should ; in this way not enough air 
can enter the lungs and the body suffers. Besides, if 
children dress so tightly about the chest it will keep 
this part of the body from getting its proper shape 
and size (Figs. 9 and 10). 

236. Tobacco-smoke Irritates the Lungs. — 
Tobacco -smoke is irritating to the lungs of many 
people, and makes them cough. The throat also suf- 
fers, and it becomes red and sore. Such a throat is 
called by the doctor smoker's sore throat. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. Where is the windpipe? 2. Where does the windpipe divide ? 
3. Into what organ does the windpipe carry the air ? 4. Is the 
windpipe in front of, or behind, the gullet? 5. How is food pre- 
vented from entering the windpipe ? 6. What do we mean when 
we say that food has gone the wrong way ? 7. What is the work of 
the lungs? 8. Where are the lungs? 9. How can the lungs be 
divided ? 10. What is the shape of each lung ? 11. What covers 
the lungs on the outside ? 12. What do the lungs consist of ? 13. 
What becomes of the branches from the windpipe? 14. What air- 
spaces are there in the lungs ? 15. Does breathing stop at any time 
during life ? 16. How often a minute do we usually breathe ? 17. 
What change takes place in the size of the lungs when we take 
a breath ? 18. Why is breathing necessary to life ? 19. What 
changes take place in the air during breathing ? 20. How can we 
prove that the expired air contains moisture? 21. Which is warmer, 
the inspired air or the expired air ? 22. What is the nature of the 
air in crowded rooms ? 23. What is the disagreeable odor found in 



BREATHING. — THE WINDPIPE AND LUNGS. 101 

close rooms due to? 24. Ought we to draw the air through the 
nose or through the mouth? 25. What objection is there to breath- 
ing through the mouth ? 26. Why is it injurious to wear tight 
clothing about the chest or to have the waist tightly laced ? 27. 
What effect has tobacco-smoke upon the lungs of many people? 
28. What effect has smoking upon the throat of many persons ? 



LESSON XXI. 

HOW THE AIE IS PUBIFIED. — EBESH AIE.— 
VENTILATION. 

237. Effects of Impure Air.— Much time spent 
in close rooms produces a sleepy, dull, and tired feel- 
ing ; the color suffers, and we no longer look bright. 
The blood cannot be purified in such bad air. In this 
way all the tissues of the body become pale and weak, 
and the organs no longer work as they should. 

238. Purification of the Air.— If the air is con- 
stantly being made impure by our breathing, it would 
seem quite natural to ask, Why is it that the air 
does not become so impure after a while that we 
cannot live in it ? This would result if God had not 
provided two great purifiers — sunlight and plants. 
These are the great natural purifiers and change the 
bad air, making it as good as it was before. You have 
no doubt noticed how stale it smells in all dark 
places, such as cellars. This is because the sunlight 
never enters to purify the air. 

239. The way in which the plants purify the air is 
quite wonderful ; they make use of the poisonous 
gases as their food. 

240. How Plants Live and Crow. — Plants 
breathe in poisonous gases from the air and breathe 



HOW THE AIR IS PURIFIED. 103 

out purr oxygen. Besides the poisonous carbonic 
acid gas which they take from the air, they also ab- 
sorb moisture and salts from the ground. From all 
these plants form their stems and leaves, and they 
grow until we could hardly believe that the big tree 
has grown from a small plant with no other nourish- 
ment than what has just been mentioned. In order 
to do this, plants must have sunlight — they will not 
grow in the dark. So that what is poisonous to the 
animal is food to the plant, And in this way pure 
oxygen is returned to the air and the poisonous car- 
bonic-acid £as is gotten rid of. 

241. Ventilation. — Ventilation means allowing im- 
pure air to escape from our rooms and letting fresh 
air take its place. This is very necessary. If a man 
were locked in a room and everything were tightly 
closed so that no fresh air could enter, no matter how 
much food and drink he had, he would soon die, be- 
cause his breathing would be constantly making the 
air of the room more and more impure ; finally he 
would die from want of pure air. 

242. How to Ventilate Rooms. — In summer it 
is quite easy to ventilate our rooms, for all we need to 
do is to open the windows wide; the fresh air will 
then stream in and the impure air escape at tli<> 
same time. But in winter it is more difficult ; for tlie 
outside air, while it is fresh and pure, is also cold ; 
and if we opened the windows very wide, we would 
fWl uncomfortable. It is fortunate that out- windows 
are not, as a rule, very tight-fitting; hence, more or 
less air gets in through the cracks. Hut it is well to 



104 



PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



draw down the window a little from the top, for the 
foul air is lighter than the fresh air and is always 

found near the ceiling 
of the room. 

243. Another very 
good way of ventilating 
a room is to push up the 
lower window about six 
inches and to fasten a 
piece of board in front 
y of the open space which 
you make in this way. 
Or instead of a board a 
piece of canvas will be 
better yet, and it can 
be made to look nice by 
painting or embroider- 
ing on it. In this way 
the fresh air will come 
in through the canvas 
below, and the foul air 
will go out in the open- 
ing between the upper 
and lower portions of 
the window, as is shown 
in Fig. 83. 

Fig. 83.— An Easy Method of Ventilating ^44. Certain methods 

Rooms. The arrows above show how the n f "hpstino- rnnryio qt»o 

impure air escapes. Those below, show Ui Iiearm 8 100IUS are 
how the fresh air enters. 




of ventilating them. 



also valuable as means 
The open-grate fire is one of the 



best means of supplying warmth, because it furnishes 



HOW THE AIR IS PURIFIED. 105 

such a ready escape for tlie impure air, which passes 
up the chimney. 

246. In ventilating rooms it must be remembered 
that there should be no draughts of air upon the per- 
sons in the room, for otherwise the}^ will catch cold. 
And also that a room cannot be healthy if no sunlight 
ever enters it. In some of our houses, and especially 
in what we call flats, many of the rooms are dark and 
never have any sunlight ; these must be unhealthy, 
and the air in them can never be so pure as in light 
rooms. 



QUESTIONS. 

1. What effect has impure air upon the body ? 2. How is the air 
purified ? 3. What are the two great purifiers of Nature ? 4. How 
do plants purify the air ? 5. What does the food of plants consist 
of ? 6. Can plants thrive without sunlight ? 7. What is meant by 
the term ventilation ? 8. Could we live in a room if the air were 
never changed ? 9. Why not ? 10. How can we ventilate our 
rooms in summer ? 11. What is a good method of ventilating rooms 
in winter? 12. In what part of the room do we find the greater 
part of the impure air ? 13. Why are cold draughts injurious ? 14. 
What effect has sunlight upon the air of a room? 15. Can rooms 
in which sunlight never enters be healthy ? 16. Why is the open- 
grate fire such a good way of heating a room ? 



LESSON XXII. 
OUE OUTSIDE COVEEING.— THE SKIN, 

246. The Skin forms a soft, elastic layer which cov- 
ers the entire body. It is thick at certain places where 
the body is very much exposed, or where there is 
much friction, as in the palms of the hands and the 
soles of the feet. In other places, which are more pro- 
tected, it is quite thin ; as, for instance, the inner side 
of the arm. 

247. Why the Skin is Very Sensitive.— In an 
other lesson we will read about certain tiny threads 
called nerves. A great many of these exist in the skin 
and end here in little knobs. Some of these nerves 
give rise to pain; this is very useful, as it protects the 
body and tells you -when to be careful. If you are 
holding a lighted match in your fingers, you will drop 
it as soon as it burns down to your finger-tips, because 
there is pain. If there were no pain to warn you, the 
ends of the fingers might have been burnt, before you 
were aware of it. With these nerves we are enabled 
to feel whether anything is smooth or rough, sharp or 
dull, cold or warm, soft or hard. The finger-tips are 
intended as the organs of touch. 

248. The Two Layers of the Skin.— The skin is 
formed of two layers, an outer and an inner. The 
outer skin is formed of a great many scales or flat 



OUR OUTSIDE COVERING. — THE SKIN. 



107 



cells covering each other; these cells are being con- 
stantly rubbed away and cast off, and are then re- 
placed by new ones. In taking a bath, it will be 
noticed that, in drying, a little of the skin comes off; 
this represents the dead cells which are cast off. 

249. The Finger-tips. — If you look at the skin of 
the palms of the hand, and especially at the tips of 




Fig. 84. — The Two Layers of the Skin. Above are seen the scales of which 
the outer layer consists. 

the fingers, you will see fine lines arranged in circles. 
If you examine these with a magnifying-glass it will 
be seen that the lines are raised ; it is here that the 
nerves of feeling end in great numbers. 

250. Parts of the Skin.— Upon examining the 
skin we find in it, or attached to it, perspiration 
tubes, oil tubes, hairs, and, in certain parts, nails. 

251. The Perspiration Tubes and the Pores.— 
The perspiration tubes are small tubes in the skin, 



108 



PKIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 




which give off perspiration (Fig. 85). Where they 
open upon the skin is a small space called a pore. 
There are thousands of these pores in 
the space of every inch of the skin. 
This shows the necessity of keeping the 
body clean, so that the pores remain 
open, for otherwise the perspiration 
cannot escape. 

252. The Perspiration. — Perspira- 
tion is being constantly given off from 
the body, day and night. Most of the 
time, especially when the weather is 
cool, it is invisible. But if more than 
the usual amount is given off, it collects 
in drops ; this occurs in summer and at 
other seasons of the year when we be- 
come overheated or work hard. Per- 
spiration consists largely of water ; and 
in the water certain mineral salts and certain poi- 
sonous matters which it is necessary for the body to 
get rid of, are dissolved. 

253. The Oil Tubes.— Besides the perspiration 
tubes, there are others which run through the skin 
and open on or near its surface. These tubes give off 
a certain oily substance which keeps the skin soft and 
movable, without which the skin would get dry and 
cracked. This oily matter also serves to keep the hair 
glossy and soft ; and we find the greatest number of 
oil tubes where there is hair. It is to remove the oily 
matter which has become stale and has attracted dirt 
that we need soap in washing. 



Fig. 85. — One of 
the Perspiration 
Tubes and Pores 
of the Skin. 



OUR OUTSIDE COVERING. — THE SKIN. 109 

364. The Hair. — If a hair be examined it will be 
found that one end is pointed, while the other, which 
was attached to the skin, has a white knob ; this is 




Fig. 86. — Two Hairs. Showing the manner in which the hairs are attached 

to the skin. 

the root, and it is through this that it is fastened to 
the skin (Fig. 86). The hair is not solid, but is a tube 
filled with a soft material. 

255. The Nails. — At the end of the fingers and 
toes are the nails. They are hard and horny, and 
serve to protect the finger-tips and give them firmness. 
In front they have no feeling and we may cut them 




Fig. 87. — Proper and Improper Method of Trimming the Nails. The figure to 
the left exhibits the proper method — cut off squarely ; that to the right the 
improper method — cut off round and close. 

without paining us. But farther back they are very 
firmly attached, and here they are v^vy sensitive. 

256. The Care of the Nails.— The nails should 
be cut with scissors at regular intervals. They should 



110 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY A1STD HYGIENE. 

not be cut too close or else the finger-tips and the ends 
of the toes will become sore. Many persons have sore 
toes, especially the big toe, because they do not cut 
the nail properly. The nails should be cut straight 
across and not rounded (Fig. 87). The finger-nails 
should not be bitten off. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. Is the skin of the same thickness throughout the body ? 2. 
At what points is it the thickest ? 3. Why is the skin very sen- 
sitive ? 4. Of what use are the nerves of feeling ? 5. Of how many 
layers is the skin formed ? 6. Of what is the outer layer formed ? 
7. What becomes of the scales which form the outer layer? 8. 
What lines do we see on the tips of the ringers ? 9. What parts are 
found in or attached to the skin ? 10. What are the perspiration 
tubes? 11. What are the pores? 12. What is perspiration? 13. 
Why is it necessary that perspiration be given off from the body ? 
14. What are the oil tubes? 15. What are the uses of the oil tubes? 
16. Why must we use soap in addition to water in cleansing the 
body? 17. Describe a hair. 18. How is hair attached to the skin ? 
19. Of what use are the nails? 20. How should the nails be 
trimmed ? 






LESSON XXIII. 

THE CARE OF THE SKIN.— BATHING. 

257. You will now appreciate how important the 
skin is, and why it is necessary to keep it in good 
condition : if you wish to be healthy, you must be 
clean. Cleanliness is next to Godliness is an old and 
true saying. Dirt is, as a rule, a sign of ignorance ; 
and those nations are usually the dirtiest which are 
the most backward in civilization. On the other 
hand, the more civilized people are, the cleaner do 
they keep themselves. There are few things that 
cause so much disease as uncleanliness and filth. 

258. The Results of Uncleanliness and Filth. 
— Whenever you read of outbreaks of cholera and 
such diseases, you will always find that they occur in 
parts of cities which are overcrowded and filthy. 
This was shown in the last outbreak of cholera many 
years ago in New York. It is easy to understand 
why this should be so. The pores of the skin are the 
openings by which the body gets rid of waste mate- 
rials, just as the sewer-pipes of a city carry off the ref- 
use. Suppose the sewer becomes stopped up in a 
large city, what trouble it causes ! What dirt ! Whal 
a stench ! In the same way. when we allow the dirt 
to cover the pores of our skin, the poisonous materials 
cannot escape, and the body suffers. 



112 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AJ5TD HYGIENE. 

259. Bathing. — It is not sufficient to wash the 
hands and face daily ; we should wash off the entire 
body at least once a week. If 3^ou shake out some of 
your underclothing at night, you will find a great 
many small white flakes fall to the ground. They 
represent the uppermost layer of the skin which is 
constantly being cast off in these small particles and 
replaced by the deeper layers. The entire body is 
covered with these scales, and it is necessary to re- 
move them often. Some fall off by themselves, but 
others must be removed by soap and water. Conse- 
quently, at least once a week we should take a warm 
bath, and use soap in it, for this removes the stale, 
oily matter also. 

260. Cold Baths. — Besides the warm bath for the 
sake of cleanliness, we take cold baths, especially in 
summer, because they are refreshing and strengthen- 
ing. After taking a cold bath it is well to rub the 
body with a coarse towel so as to make the skin glow 
and tingle. This causes the blood to circulate faster, 
and increases our strength and appetite. It is injuri- 
ous to remain in a cold bath until you begin to shiver. 
As soon as you begin to feel chilly you should go out. 

261. Never bathe directly after a meal ; wait two 
or three hours. If you are overheated and perspire 
freely, it is better to wait until you are somewhat 
cooled off before you go into cold water. Always wet 
the entire head as well as the rest of the body when 
bathing. 

262. Powder. — The use of powder and like sub- 
stances upon the skin is injurious. These substances 



THE CAKE OF THE SKIN. — BATHING. 113 

Btop up the pores and make the skin rough and ugly. 
Besides, many of them are poisonous, and this poison 
may get into the blood through the skin and poison 
the bod}\ Powdering the face is not done by the 
better class of people. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. Why is cleanliness so very important? 2. Of what is dirt a 
sign as regards civilization ? 3. How often should the entire body 
be washed ? 4. Why should the entire body be washed frequently 
with soap and warm water ? 5. What are the effects of a cold bath ? 
6. What should we do to make the circulation more brisk after a 
cold bath ? 7. What is a sign that you have been in a cold bath 
long enough? 8. Is it well to bathe directly after a meal? 9. 
What other precautions should you take when bathing ? 10. What 
effect has the use of powder and like substances upon the skin ? 



LESSON XXIV. 
THE WAEMTH OF THE BODY.— OUK CLOTHING. 

263. Have you ever stopped to think how it is that 
on the coldest day in winter our bodies remain warm 
even though we go out into the open air % You may 
say it is due to the clothing we wear, but this is not 
so. For if you took a cold stone and wrapped ever so 
much clothing around it, you could not warm it. 
Our clothes keep in the heat of the body, but they 
cannot produce any. 

264. What Causes the Warmth of the Body- 
The warmth of the body is caused by the food which 
we eat and the oxygen of the air which we breathe. 
These serve as fuel, just as coal and wood form the 
fuel in a stove. This human fuel is changed so that it 
can be used by the various parts of the body. The 
tissues of the body are used up in performing the 
work required of them and in keeping the body 
warm ; they are constantly being built up again by 
the nourishing materials which the blood conveys to 
them. 

265. Warmth of the Human Body.— The warmth 
of the human body is about ninety-eight degrees as 
measured with the thermometer. All of you have 
probably seen a thermometer. It is a long, hollow 
tube of glass, containing a silvery fluid called quick- 



THE WARMTH OF THE BODY. — OUR CLOTHING. 115 

silver. Heat makes the quicksilver rise, and the more 
heat the higher it rises ; so that we tell how hot 
anything is by the height to which the fluid in the 
thermometer rises, there being numbers attached to 
the frame of the instrument to express the heat. 
Ninety-eight degrees expresses the heat of our blood, 
and hence this is called blood-heat. 

266. The Warmth of the Body Remains Con- 
stant during Health — The blood and the interior 
of the body have the same heat in summer as in win- 
ter, namely, ninety-eight degrees. In winter the skin, 
especially of the hands, may be quite cold, and yet 
the heat of the blood remains the same. 

267. When sick with/ever, the blood becomes hot- 
ter ; if this increase in heat is more than a few de- 
grees, it is very dangerous. 

268. How we Keep Warm in Winter —In win- 
ter we depend upon exercise, additional food, and 
warmer clothing to keep us warm. You have noticed 
the car-drivers slap their arms about on a cold day ; 
this is to give them exercise and make them warm ; it 
makes the blood circulate faster, and this brings heat 
to the tissues. If we go out on a cold day before 
breakfast we feel very chilly ; everyone knows how 
much better he can endure the cold after having 
had a warm meal. We wear warmer clothing in win- 
ter so as to prevent the warmth from leaving the body 
too quickly. Woollen clothing is the warmest. When 
it is cold, it is well to wear flannel next to the skin. 

269. How we Keep Cool in Summer. — In sum- 
mer we should eat Ihss food, and particularly less 



116 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

meat, than in winter. Usually our appetite is not as 
good in summer as in winter, and naturally, therefore, 
we take less food. We should have light clothing ; 
linen is the coolest. Everything we do during the 
warm part of the summer days we should do slowly 
and without hurry. Never walk in the sun for any 
distance without being shaded. 



QUESTIONS. 

1. Can clothing produce any warmth in the body? 2. What 
effect has our clothing upon the heat of the body? 3. What 
causes the warmth of the body? 4. What is the natural warmth 
of the human body ? 5. What is a thermometer ? 6. What change 
is there in the heat of the body when we have fever ? 7. How do 
we keep warm in winter? 8. How does exercise keep us warm? 
9. In what manner do clothes keep us warm. 10. Are we apt to 
eat more in summer or in winter? 11. What should be done in 
summer to keep cool ? 12. What sort of clothing is the warmest ? 
13. What sort of clothing is the coolest ? 






LESSON XXV. 

ALCOHOLIC AND OTHER STIMULANTS. 

270. A stimulant is something which excites the 
body or some part of it. Among the most common 
stimulants are coffee, tea, and liquids containing alco- 
hol. Many drugs act as stimulants ; ammonia and 
camphor are good examples of medicines which are 
taken for this purpose. 

271. The Proper Use of Stimulants.— A stimu- 
lant may be useful in certain conditions of ill-health, 
when ordered by a physician. We hear frequently 
that a " tonic" has been ordered for some invalid in 
order to strengthen the body or to increase the power 
of the heart when it is weak. These are examples of 
the proper use of stimulants. 

272. Water and Food Act as Stimulants.— A 
drink of cold water is probably the most common ex- 
ample of the use of a stimulant ; everyone knows how 
a person who feels faint may become revived by this 
simple means. Food, especially in liquid form, and 
in such a state that it can be quickly digested and 
hence rapidly taken up by the blood, is an ideal form 
of stimulant ; thus, a plate of hot soup, or gruel, or a 
glass of hot milk, is a useful stimulant. 

273. Tea and Coffee as Stimulants. — Tea and 
coffee are stimulants which, if taken in moderate 



118 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

quantity by adults, are not usually harmful and are 
often of service. Children are, however, better off 
without the regular use of tea and coffee ; milk and 
water are the natural drinks for them. 

274. These are all examples of stimulants which are, 
as a rule, harmless, and which are often of great value. 
We will now take up the study of a stimulant which 
is the cause of much ill-health, and of more unhappi- 
ness and crime than any other agent with which we 
are acquainted ; this stimulant is alcohol. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What is a stimulant ? 2. Mention some of the most common 
stimulants. 3. When may a stimulant be useful ? 4. Give an ex- 
ample of the proper use of a stimulant. 5. What form of food acts 
as an excellent stimulant ? 6. How may water be used as a stimu- 
lant ? 7. Under what circumstances are tea and coffee harmless 
stimulants ? 8. Are tea and coffee suitable for children as regular 
drinks ? 9. What drinks are better for children than tea and 
coffee ? 10. What objections are there to the use of alcohol as a 
stimulant ? 



LESSON XXVI. 

ALCOHOL. 

275. The Early History of Alcohol. — Alcohol is 
said to have been discovered about three thousand 
years ago. At that period chemists employed all 
their time in trying to discover two things : One was 
how to change the common metals into gold, and the 
other to discover a substance, an " elixir of life," the 
taking of which would give everlasting strength and 
life, and prevent death. Alcohol was at first believed 
to be such an " elixir of life ;" but it did not take the 
ancients long to find out, to their sorrow, that its ef- 
fects were exactly the opposite. 

276. Alcoholic Drinks.— Alcoholic drinks are so 
called because they contain alcohol. It is this sub- 
stance which makes them intoxicating, that is, capa- 
ble of making men drunk. They vary in the propor- 
tion of alcohol which they contain ; in general we 
may say that the greater this proportion the more 
harm they do. Besides this difference in the amount 
of alcohol, there is also a variation in the flavor or 
taste of each, depending upon how it is made. 

277. Some alcoholic drinks are sweet ; some have 
no sugar ; some are bitter. Some are dark, others are 
Light in color. Some are sparkling because they con- 
tain escaping gas, and others are free from this. Some 



120 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

are strong and others are weak. But these are mere- 
ly variations ; in every case the harm done depends 
upon the existence of alcohol and its amount. 

278. Non-alcoholic Drinks. — These are some- 
times spoken of as "soft" or temperance drinks. 
They consist of water, flavored in various ways, and 
made sparkling by escaping gas. Such drinks are 
harmless, and since they contain no alcohol are not 
intoxicating. Unless taken too cold or in too large a 
quantity, they are not objectionable. As examples, 
we may mention ginger-ale, soda-water, sarsaparilla, 
and lemonade. 

279. Alcohol. — Alcohol is a clear, colorless liquid, 
resembling water in appearance ; it will mix with 
water. It is lighter than water. It has a pleasant 
smell, but its taste is hot and burning. If we leave a 
little exposed in a saucer, we soon find that it has dis- 
appeared into the air, and we say it has " evaporated." 
It ta,kes fire easily, and burns with a faint bluish 
flame, which gives very little light, but considerable 
heat ; and all the alcohol is consumed without any 
smoke or soot. Alcohol is sometimes called spirit. 

280. The Uses of Alcohol. — Alcohol is very use- 
ful to us in many ways. It dissolves a great many 
things which water will not dissolve. Oils and resins 
will not mix with water ; but alcohol dissolves them. 
The druggist uses it pure or mixed with water to ex- 
tract the valuable parts of roots, herbs, barks, and 
leaves. In this way many medicines are made. 

281. Alcohol will not freeze, no matter how cold it 
is : hence it is used to fill the tubes of thermometers 



ALCOHOL. 121 

which are to be used in very cold countries. It will 
preserve animal and vegetable tissues and keep them 
from becoming offensive and from rotting. 

282. How Alcohol is Made.— Alcohol is derived 
exclusively from the vegetable world, and yet, during 
the life of plants, no alcohol can be detected. It is 
formed from the starch and sugar which plants pro- 
duce, but not so long as the parts of the plants are in 
a natural condition. The sap of the sugar-cane is rich 
in sugar, but while rooted in the ground, and living, 
no alcohol is formed ; it is only when cut and crushed 
that alcohol makes its appearance. In the same man- 
ner, grain and vegetables contain much starch ; but 
so long as the outside covering remains intact no 
alcohol forms. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What is meant by alcoholic drinks ? 2. Why are they intoxi- 
cating? 3. What is meant by the word intoxicating? 4. Explain 
in a general way how alcoholic drinks vary ? 5 What is the injuri- 
ous part of alcoholic drinks ? 6. By what other terms are non-alco- 
holic drinks known ? 7. Give a number of examples of non-alco- 
holic* drinks. S. What is the appearance of alcohol ? 9. What are 
some of the properties of alcohol ? 10. In what ways can we make 
use of alcohol? 11. From what is alcohol derived? 12. Does al- 
cohol exist during the life of plants? 



WESSON XXVII. 
FEKMENTATION. 

283. Fermentation. — The process by which starch 
and sugar are changed into alcohol is an example of 
what is known as fermentation. Sugar can be con- 
verted directly into alcohol ; but starch must first be- 
come sugar before fermentation will change it into 
alcohol. 

284. If you take anything which contains starch, 
whether it be corn, rye, potatoes, or anything else, 
add yeast and water to it, and mix them, you will 
soon find that the starch in these substances has 
turned into sugar. If you allow the mixture to stand 
longer, and if you warm it slightly, little bubbles of 
gas will be seen escaping into the air ; we say it is 
fermenting. If any one has seen sweet cider becom- 
ing hard and then sour, he will have noticed the bub- 
bles of gas rising ; this is an example of fermenta- 
tion. 

285. At the same time that this gas is given off we 
find the liquid is becoming less sweet than it was. 
After a time it will have lost all its sweetness and 
have the taste of alcohol. So that, first, the starch has 
been changed into sugar, and then the sugar has be- 
come changed into alcohol. 

286. The alcohol remains in the liquid, while the 



FEKMEXTATION. 123 

gas, which is poisonous, escapes into the air. Two 
poisons have taken the place of the starch or sugar 
which existed before. The gas, known as carbonic 
acid gas, is the same poisonous substance which is 
given off in the expired breath and which collects in 
damp cellars and old wells. 

287. This process which changes sugar and starch 
into alcohol is but one form of fermentation, and is 
brought about by the growth of minute living bodies 
which are always present in the air and hence soon 
fall into an}' liquid which is exposed. 

288. Minute Living Bodies in the Air.— Germs. 
— These minute living bodies are called germs. Mill- 
ions of them are always present in the air. They are 
so small that it is only when a number of them are 
examined together, with a very strong microscope, 
that they can be seen. Most of them are harmless. 
Some give rise to fermentation ; others cause liquids 
to become mouldy, to rot, or spoil ; still others are 
responsible for all the contagious diseases, such as 
diphtheria, scarlet fever, measles, etc. In every case 
these germs, as they are called, grow and multiply 
with enormous rapidity, and in doing so they produce 

fermentation, rotting, or contagious diseases. 

289. There are Different Kinds of Fermenta- 
tion.— If a watery liquid containing vegetable sub- 
stances be exposed to the air in a warm place, it soon 
spoils ; this is because germs from the air have fallen 
into the liquid, have grown there, and in doing so 
have produced the changes which we call spoiling ; 
this is one kind of fermentation. The change of 



124 PEIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

starch and sugar into alcohol is another kind. If we 
expose cider or wine to the air in a warm place, the 
liquid will become sour and turn into vinegar ; this is 
another form of fermentation. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. Give an example of fermentation. 2. Can starch be changed 
directly into alcohol? 3. Into what substance must starch first be 
changed before it can form alcohol? 4. Describe the process of 
fermentation by which alcohol is produced. 5. What is formed be- 
sides alcohol? 6. "What change is there in the sweetness of the 
liquid ? 7. What becomes of the poisonous gas which is formed ? 
8. What can you say about the living bodies in the air? 9. What 
are they called ? 10. What is their size ? 11. What different pro- 
cesses do they give rise to ? 12. Give examples of different kinds 
of fermentation. 



LESSON XXVIII. 
ALCOHOLIC DEINKS. 

290. Yeast. — In the case of that kind of fermenta- 
tion which produces alcohol, the minute living body 
which causes it is known as the yeast plant or yeast. 

291. How Alcoholic Drinks are Made.— In 

changing starchy or sugary solutions into alcoholic 




Fig. 88.— A Still Used in Making Certain Alcoholic Drinks. 

liquids it is often more convenient and hastens the 
process to add a little yeast, than to take the chances 
that some such germs will fall in from the air. So 
much yeasl forms when beer is made that the surplus 



126 PEIMAEY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

is sold in large quantities by brewers. Yeast lias one r 
very important and familiar use in the making of bread. 

292. After the liquid which is to be an alcoholic 
drink has been fermented, it requires clearing and 
flavoring. If the drink is to be wine, beer, ale, porter ? 
or cider, this is done by allowing the liquid to stand, 
and pouring off the clear part and straining it. If it 
is to be one of the liquors, whiskey, brandy, rum, and 
the like, the liquid is placed in a large vessel, called a 
still (Fig. 88), and heated. The heat drives off the al- 
cohol, some of the water, and some flavoring matter ; 
these are collected and make liquor. 

293. Distillation*— This process, by which a fluid 
is turned into a vapor and then collected again in the 
form of a liquid, is called distillation. Cold hastens 
the return of the vapor to a liquid form. If you 
breathe upon a pane of glass in winter, moisture will 
collect. This is the moisture contained in the expired 
air which is condensed by the coldness of the window- 
pane. If pure alcohol is wanted, it must be driven off 
by heat several times in succession, being collected 
again each time. 

294. Varieties of Alcoholic Drinks.— All alco- 
holic drinks are intoxicating in proportion to the 
amount of alcohol which they contain. They can be 
divided into Ave classes : 

1. Malt Liquors or Beers. 

2. Cider. 

3. Wines. 

4. Distilled Spirits or Liquors. 

5. Cordials. 



ALCOHOLIC DRINKS. 127 

295. Malt Liquors.— Beer, Ale, Porter, and 
Stout. — These contain from one 'thirtieth to one- 
twelfth of alcohol. 

296. Beer. — Beer is made from barley. The barley 
grains are moistened and kept in a warm place until 
they sprout, that is, until the root and stem begin to 
form ; the object of this is to change the starch of the 
grain into sugar. As soon as sprouting commences, 
the barley is placed in an oven and heated so as to 
stop its growth. This forms malt. 

297. The malt is crushed, mixed with hot water, 
and the mass allowed to stand. In this way the 
sugary portions of the malt are extracted or dis- 
solved. It is then strained, and, after hops are add- 
ed to give it the peculiar flavor of beer, and at the 
same time a slightly bitter taste, it is boiled. 

29S. Then it is drawn off, cooled to the ordinary 
temperature of the room by being surrounded by large 
quantities of ice, mixed with yeast, and allowed to 
ferment. After fermentation has proceeded to a cer- 
tain point, the yeast is separated and the clear fluid 
is drawn into casks ; this is beer. 

299. Ale, Porter, and Stout. — These are made in 
a similar manner. The dark brown color of porter 
and stout is produced by adding a quantity of charred 
malt. 

300. Cider. — This is the fermented juice of apples. 
The fruit is crushed and the juice collected. At first 
it is sweet and contains no alcohol ; but it soon fer- 
ments, and its sugar changing to alcohol, it becomes 
less sweet and is called hard. After awhile, unless 



128 PEIMAKY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

protected from the air and heat, it undergoes further 
change, becomes sour, and forms vinegar. Cider con- 
tains about one-twentieth of alcohol. 

301. Wines. — Wines contain from one-tenth to 
one-fifth of alcohol. They are made from grapes. The 
juice is pressed out and set aside in large vats. If 
there be much sugar present, the wine remains sweet. 
In other wines, nearly if not quite all the sugar be- 
comes changed into alcohol ; the wine then loses its 
sweetness and is known as a dry wine. 

302. Home-made Wines. — A great deal of ignor- 
ance is displayed on the subject of home-made wines. 
Many people believe that because they have manufac- 
tured such wines themselves, they must be harmless 
and innocent. Elderberry wine, currant wine, goose- 
berry wine, and other home-made wines are just as 
injurious as those made from the grape. They contain 
just as large a percentage of alcohol as many of the 
wines made from grapes ; and this being the case, they 
are just as harmful. It is the alcohol which consti- 
tutes the injurious portion of wines and of all other 
forms of intoxicating drinks. 

303. Distilled Spirits or Liquors. — Liquors con- 
tain about one-half alcohol ; they are the most intoxi- 
cating and the most dangerous of all alcoholic drinks. 
The proportion of alcohol is about the same in all of 
them ; the only difference is in the flavor. This de- 
pends either upon the variety of grain or other sub- 
stance used in the manufacture, or upon whatever 
flavoring agent is added afterward. Whiskey is made 
from corn or rye, and very cheap forms from potatoes. 



ALCOHOLIC DRINKS. 129 

Brandy is made from grapes and other fruits. Rum 
is distilled from molasses. Gin is flavored with juni- 
per berries. 

304. Many liquors are made artificially by mixing 
equal parts of alcohol and water, adding some flavor- 
ing, and enough coloring substance to give the proper 
appearance. Many of the substances added in this 
way are of a very injurious and poisonous character; 
thus other poisons are added to the alcohol. 

305. Cordials. — These are clear, sweetened liquids, 
variously colored, containing about one-third alcohol ; 
they are flavored with different oils, such as pepper- 
mint, anise, fennel, orange, etc. They are known by 
fancy French names. Some of them are distilled 
liquors to which considerable sugar has been added. 
Most of them are made artificially by mixing alcohol 
and water and then flavoring and coloring to suit. 

306. Many of the much-advertised bitters, tonics, 
elixirs, and other patent medicines contain large 
amounts of alcohol. They are not only capable of 
doing great injury, but are deceptive, and thus often 
cause a craving for alcoholic drink in persons who 
were ignorant that they were taking what practically 
amounts to liquor. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What is yeast? 2. What is it used for? 3. How are alco- 
holic drinks made ? 4. What is a still? 5. What is distillation ? 
C. What different kinds of alcoholic drinks are there? 7. How 
much alcohol do malt liquors contain? 8. From what is beer made? 
9. How is beer made? 10. What is malt? 11. What other kinds of 



130 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

malt liquors are there? 12. What is cider? 13. How much alco- 
hol does it contain? 14. What is the difference between sweet and 
hard cider? 15. What is vinegar? 16. From what are wines ob- 
tained? 17. How much alcohol do wines contain? 18. Why are 
some wines sweet and others dry ? 19. Mention examples of home- 
made wines ? 20. Why are home-made wines just as injurious as 
others? 21. How much alcohol do distilled spirits or liquors con- 
tain ? 22. Why are they the most dangerous of all alcoholic drinks? 
23. How do the various liquors differ ? 24. From what is whiskey 
made ? 25. From what is brandy made ? 26. From what is rum 
made ? 27. From what is gin made ? 28. What additional poisons 
are found in liquors which are made artificially ? 29. What are cor- 
dials ? 30. How much alcohol do they contain? 31. What objec- 
tion is there to the various bitters, tonics, and elixirs which we often 
see advertised? 32. What similar objection is there to many patent 
medicines ? 



LESSON XXIX. 
THE EFFECTS OF ALCOHOLIC DRINK UPON THE BODY. 

307. Alcohol in various forms is sometimes pre- 
scribed by the physician for rise as a medicine ; most 
doctors, however, realize how much responsibility at- 
taches to their recommendation of liquids containing 
alcohol even for this purpose ; for the alcohol habit 
is begun in some persons by the well-meant direc- 
tions of the medical adviser. In certain fevers and 
wasting diseases, alcoholic drinks are prescribed not 
only as stimulants but also as food. 

308. But because it may act as a food under such 
conditions, w^e are not justified in assuming that it 
can be used as a food at all times, for ordinarily it 
does not act as a food. It. is intoxicating, and the 
very meaning of the word, which is derived from the 
Latin, signifying arrow-poison, indicates its nature. 

309. Alcohol is not Ordinarily a Food.— The va- 
rious alcoholic drinks contain no nutritious matter 
at all excepting beer, ale, porter, and stout, and these 
contain such a small proportion that we would be 
compelled to take a very large quantity to obtain a 
comparatively small amount of nourishing matter. 
If we did this, we would necessarily have to drink a 
large amount of alcohol. Hence, whatever value they 
might have on account of a small proportion of nour- 



132 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

ishment, is neutralized by the injurious results of the 
alcohol. 

310. One glass of milk, one plate of gruel, one slice 
of roast beef, or one cup of broth contains more nutri- 
tion than many glasses of beer, ale, porter, or stout. 

311. Alcohol does not Increase the Warmth of 
the Body* — There is an erroneous idea, which is quite 
prevalent, that alcohol increases the warmth of the 
body. But it is a fact which has been proven over 
and over again that it has just the opposite effect. 

312. There may be a feeling of warmth to the body, 
after alcoholic drink has been taken, but this is only 
on the surface and soon passes away, and then the 
warmth of the body is lessened. This was shown very 
well in several North-polar expeditions, where men 
who drank freely of liquor were frozen before the rest. 
Persons who are exposed to great cold know from ex- 
perience that they do better without alcoholic drink. 

313. Persons who use alcoholic drinks are less able 
to withstand the effects of great heat than are those 
who do not indulge. The testimony of Livingstone, 
the great African traveller, is, that in his exploring 
expeditions into the heart of Africa, exposed to the 
dangers of great heat and weakening fevers, those of 
his command who avoided alcohol showed the greatest 
amount of health and strength. 

314. Alcohol does not Increase the Strength 
of the Body. — It is also a mistaken idea that alco- 
hol increases the strength. Alcohol is the enemy of 
muscle tissue ; it changes it into fat. Of all obstacles 
to the development of muscle, there is none greater 



EFFECTS OF ALCOHOLIC DRINK UPON THE BODY. 133 

than alcohol. This is so well known that all persons 
who train in order to accomplish physical feats re- 
quiring unusual strength and the best of health, give 
up all use of alcohol. Even prize-fighters, limited as 
their intelligence usually is, have found this out from 
experience and give up alcoholic drinks when train- 
ing. Experiments upon whole armies of men have 
shown that soldiers can do more work and better work 
when deprived of alcoholics. 

315. Training — Let us stop to consider the mean- 
ing of the word training. To train means to live in 
the most healthy way ; to go to bed early and rise 
early ; to eat the most digestible and strength giving 
food ; to take plenty of out-of-door exercise ; to avoid 
all tobacco ; and to abstain entirely from drink con- 
taining alcohol. All this is done to develop the mus- 
cles, so that one may be put in a fine and healthy 
condition and become as strong as possible. 

316. Everyone has probably heard of the great boat- 
races which take place every year between Columbia 
and Harvard and between Harvard and Yale Univer- 
sities. There is great rivalry between the colleges, 
and of course each likes to win the race. Each of 
these crews trains throughout the winter and spring 
until the day of the race, so as to become strong and 
increase the chances of winning. Every member leads 
a most regular life, and smoking and alcoholic drinks 
are absolutely forbidden. 

317. Alcohol Weakens the Power to Resist 
Disease. — If a person who uses a good deal of alco- 
holic drink becomes ill with some serious disease, his 



134 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

chances of recovery are very much fewer than if he 
had abstained ; this is particularly the case with pneii- 
monia, a disease of the lungs with a high fever. If 
such a person meets with an accident, it will take him 
longer to recover ; in the case of a fracture, the ends 
of the broken bone unite with much greater difficulty 
than in ordinary cases. 

318. The average length of life in persons who in- 
dulge freely in alcoholic drink is shorter than in 
others, and in the case of drunkards, it is very short 
indeed. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. For what purpose is alcohol in various forms sometimes pre- 
scribed by the physician? 2. In what other manner, except as a 
stimulant, may alcohol act when used as a medicine by the physi- 
cian ? 3. Is alcohol a food under ordinary circumstances ? 4. Do 
most alcoholic drinks contain any nourishment ? 5. In what kind 
of alcoholic drink is there a little nourishment? 6. Why cannot 
we make use of these forms of alcoholic drink for nourishment? 
7. Is there more nourishment in a glass of milk or in a glass of 
beer ? 8. Does alcohol increase the warmth of the body ? 9.. What 
effect has alcohol upon the warmth of the body ? 10. How was this 
shown in North-polar expeditions ? 11. What effect has alcohol 
upon the ability to withstand the weakening results of great heat ? 
12. How was this shown ? 13. Does alcohol increase the strength 
of the body ? 14. What effect has alcohol upon the muscles ? 15. 
What is meant by training ? 16. What is the life of a person in 
training ? 17. Why do such persons adopt this mode of life ? 18. 
Is alcohol or tobacco allowed to persons in training? 19. What 
effect has alcohol upon the power to resist disease ? 20. What effect 
has alcohol upon the ability to recover from accidents ? 21. What 
effect has the use of large quantities of alcoholic drink upon the 
length of life ? 






LESSON XXX. 

THE EFFECTS OF ALCOHOLIC DRINK UPON THE DIF- 
FERENT PARTS OF THE BODY. 

319. Alcohol irritates the stomach and constantly 
makes it red ; after awhile the wall of the stomach 
becomes tough, and is no longer suited for its work. 
When a large quantity of alcoholic drink is added to 
the food, it prevents it from being digested. It often 
causes nausea and vomiting, and the vomited material 
will have the same form as when swallowed, showing 
that alcohol interferes with digestion. Drunkards 
suffer constantly from dyspepsia. Alcohol has the 
same irritating effects upon the intestines. 

320. The liver, irritated by alcohol in the blood, be- 
comes enlarged and choked up ; it no longer purifies 
the blood by removing those poisonous materials 
which it separates in health. After a time it becomes 
much smaller and more solid than in health, and then 
it does its work still more imperfectly. 

821. Alcohol causes the heart to act too rapidly, 
and this organ is changed in a manner so as to inter- 
fere with its action. After awhile it may act Imper- 
fectly or irregularly. Muscle tissue becomes changed 
to fat, and the heart being formed of such tissue 
suffers a like change. The blood-vessels lose their 
elasticity, Income dilated and stiff. Upon the nose 



136 PRIMAEY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

can be noticed how the veins of the drunkard become 
enlarged and prominent. 

322. The muscles are made weak, because part be- 
comes changed into fat ; such muscles then become soft. 

323. The effects of alcohol are probably shown more 
prominently upon the nerves than upon any other 
parts of the body. As a result of the irritating effects 
of the alcohol, the brain first becomes excited ; this 
excitement is soon followed by the opposite condition, 
and the person becomes dull and stupid. It is some- 
times stated that alcohol rouses the brain and enables 
it to do more and better work ; it has also been stated 
that certain authors have done their best work when 
somewhat under the influence of this substance. But 
such statements are either entirely erroneous or merely 
show what is exceptional. People who do much brain- 
work usually agree that they are more active without 
the use of alcoholics. 

324. Alcohol excites the brain in one way, but it is 
not the most desirable way. It unbridles the tongue 
and tempts the unhappy victim to say things which 
he should not say, and which he feels ashamed of 
afterward. It blunts all the nobler instincts, and lets 
loose those of an animal nature. 

325. The nerves soon become affected as a result of 
alcohol, and the victim is made unsteady, as is shown 
by the trembling hands and unsteady walk of the 
drunkard. 

326. The eyesight may suffer, and even blindness 
may follow as the result of the poisonous effects of 
large quantities of alcohol upon the nerve of the eye. 



EFFECTS OF ALCOHOLIC DIUXK UPOX THE BODY. 137 



QUESTIONS. 

1. What are the effects of alcoholic drink upon the stomach ? 
2. What effect has a large quantity of alcohol upon the digestion 
of the food ? 3. What are the effects of alcoholic drink upon the 
intestines? 4. What are the effects of alcoholic drink upon the 
liver? 5. What are the effects of alcoholic drink upon the purifi- 
cation of the blood? 6. What are the effects of alcoholic drink 
upon the action of the heart? 7. What are the effects of alcoholic 
drink upon the heart itself? 8. What are the effects of alcoholic 
drink upon the muscles ? 9. What are the effects of alcoholic drink 
upon the brain ? 10. Can Ave do better work with the brain after 
the use of alcohol? 11. How does alcohol excite the brain? 12. 
How do the nerves become affected as a result of the use of large 
quantities of alcoholic drink? 13. How does the eyesight some- 
times suffer as a result of large quantities of alcoholic drink? 



LESSON XXXI. 
OTHEK HAEM WHICH ALCOHOLIC DRINK CAUSES. 

327. Drunkenness. — When the victim of the al- 
coholic habit imbibes a sufficient quantity to get him- 
self in a condition in which he is no longer responsible 
for what he does, we say he is drunk or intoxicated. 
An intoxicated person becomes stupid in intelligence, 
but excited in other ways. If he is naturally cheer- 
ful, he will become noisily gay, or attempt to sing in 
a hoarse manner, or laugh like a fool. If he is usual- 
ly more serious, he may scold or attempt to make a 
speech, saying many ridiculous things. If he is usu- 
ally quarrelsome, he will become very disagreeable ; 
he will fight, and he then becomes dangerous. 

328. A drunken individual is unable to control his 
speech, is unconscious of what he is saying, and allows 
his tongue to run away with him. He is unable to 
walk straight ; he staggers along in a pitiable way, 
catching on to lamp-posts, railings, and fences for sup- 
port. Every part of the body becomes unsteady and 
trembles. He forgets that he is a human being and 
acts like a brute. A drunken man is a disgusting 
sight ! 

329. If drunkenness be repeated many times and be- 
comes a habit, the memory begins to fail, the person 
becomes bloated and fat, the complexion poor, his 



OTHER HARM WHICH ALCOHOLIC DRINK CAUSES. 139 

breath offensive, his health fails, and he becomes fee- 
ble ; his hands tremble, his eyes and nose are con- 
stantly reddened ; he becomes careless and dirty, un- 
lit for any occupation, or any society. 

330. The Use of Alcoholic Drinks is Associ- 
ated with a Waste of Time and Money.— Even 
the milder forms of alcoholic indulgence are associ- 
ated with conditions which are well worth considering. 
There are millions of dollars uselessly spent for alco- 
holic drink each year. How many useful things this 
immense sum of money would purchase, and how 
much good it might accomplish ! Consider how much 
time is wasted in saloons, often in wretched compan- 
ionship, which might otherwise be given to the family 
at home. 

331. The Alcohol Habit. — Men do not become 
drunkards at once ; they reach this stage gradually. 
They commence with small quantities of drink. The 
habit of drinking is formed and grows until larger and 
larger amounts must be consumed in order to satisfy. 
The use of alcoholics creates an appetite or craving 

for more. As long as alcohol is in the system, there 
exists a desire for it ; and the amount necessary to 
satisfy this longing constantly increases ; an appetite 
for more alcohol is created and this is frequently al- 
most irresistible. The danger increases because the 
moral power to resist becomes weakened ; this adds 
to the seriousness of the condition and leads to drun- 
kenness. 

332. It may be argued thai many people are in the 
habit of using moderate amounts of alcoholic drinks 



140 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

without any apparent injury ; but the same can be said 
of every other poisonous substance. No one will deny 
that the world would be infinitely better off if there 
was no such thing as alcoholic drink, or even alcohol 
itself. Some other substance would undoubtedly be 
found to take its place. If a prison be visited, and 
the convicts be asked about the crimes which brought 
them there, it is astonishing how many of them will 
ascribe their downfall to drink. Many a man, who 
would otherwise have been a good and useful citizen, 
has been made a criminal by this poison. It may 
safely be said that there is no cause of crime so great 
and widespread as drink. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What is drunkenness ? 2. What effect has drunkenness upon 
the intelligence ? 3. What effect has it upon speech ? 4. What 
effect has it upon the walk ? 5. What are the results of repeated 
drunkenness? 6. In what way is the use of alcoholic drinks asso- 
ciated with waste of time and money ? 7. What is meant by the 
alcohol habit? 8. Why is it so difficult to break the habit of 
drinking alcoholics ? 9. Could we get along if there were no such 
things as alcohol and alcoholic drinks ? 10. What is probably the 
greatest cause of crime? 



LESSON XXXII. ■ 
NAKCOTICS.— TOBACCO. 

333. Narcotics. — Certain drugs which benumb the 
body, relieve pain, and produce sleep are called nar- 
cotics. Such drugs are powerful and are dangerous 
when taken improperly. Narcotics benumb the brain, 
and thus produce an artificial sleep which usually 
lacks the refreshing qualities of natural sleep, being 
often followed by a stupid condition and by head- 
ache. This is apt to be the case when narcotics are 
taken carelessly and improperly, and without a 
physician's advice. 

334. The narcotics used most frequently to produce 
sleep are opium and morphine. Tobacco is a nar- 
cotic, but is not used to produce sleep. Alcohol is a 
narcotic when used in large amount ; this is seen in a 
very pronounced manner in the heavy sleep which 
occurs in dead drunkenness. In some persons, even a 
small amount of alcoholic drink will act as a narcotic 
and cause drowsiness ; this effect is seen especially 
after the use of malt liquors. 

TOBACCO. 

335. Tobacco was first introduced into France in 
1560, and in 1586 Sir Walter Raleigh introduced it 



142 



PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



into England. Previous to this time it had been used 
by the American Indians, and was smoked by them 
when Columbus landed. Tobacco is the leaf of a 
plant which grows and is cultivated in various parts 
of the United States and other countries. It is used 







Fig. 89.— The Tobacco Plant. 



very largely in smoking and chewing ; less in snuff- 
ing. Its injurious effects are due to a poisonous prin- 
ciple called nicotine. 

336. Effects of Tobacco upon the Body.— The 
effects of tobacco upon the body are changed by 
habit There is a great difference between the effects 



NARCOTICS. — TOBACCO. 143 

produced at first, and those which follow after the 
body has become accustomed to it. When first used, 
and in those unaccustomed to it, tobacco produces 
dizziness, headache, sickness at the stomach, vomit- 
ing, weakness, and trembling. 

337. After a time the system usually becomes ac- 
customed to its use. It then acts, with some persons, 
as a mild narcotic, having a quieting effect upon the 
body and mind. But this soothing effect is not pro- 
duced in every user of tobacco. Quite a large num- 
ber are made uncomfortable by tobacco in any form, 
even in the smallest quantities, and never succeed in 
becoming accustomed to it, or in deriving any comfort 
or satisfaction from its use. 

338. The Tobacco Habit. — The fondness for to- 
bacco is an acquired habit. At first it is probably 
used merely from a desire to imitate ; then it becomes 
a habit and soon causes a craving which is satisfied 
only by larger and larger quantities. This habit does 
not, however, become as firmly rooted as the alcohol 
habit ; nor can the evils resulting from the use of to- 
bacco be compared with those caused by alcohol. 

339. It is a disputed question whether the use of to- 
bacco is ever positively beneficial. Many adults seem 
to be able to use tobacco in moderation, without any 
apparent ill effects. But it is also quite certain that 
a great many individuals are injured by it, and in 
the case of the young it is unquestionably a poison 
which causes decided injury. 

340. Injurious Effects of Tobacco upon Crown 
Persons. — Quite a number of grown persons suffer 



144 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIEJSTE. 

from the effects of tobacco and consequently from to- 
bacco-poisoning. In many cases sucli symptoms are 
slight, but in many others they are serious enough to 
prevent them from using tobacco in any form. The 
injurious effects of tobacco may show themselves in 
the following ways : 

341. Smoker's Sore Throat.— The irritating effect 
of tobacco smoke often causes a soreness of the throat, 
known as smoker's sore throat This irritation may 
extend into the lungs and cause a cough. 

342. The appetite may suffer and attacks of indiges- 
tion may occur. There may be dizziness and faint- 
ness from time to time. 

343. Tobacco Heart. — Numbers of smokers are 
compelled to give up the habit on account of its pro- 
ducing what is called tobacco heart ; this is a nervous 
state of the heart showing itself in palpitation, with 
too rapid and irregular beating. 

344. Tobacco Blindness. — As a result of tobacco- 
poisoning, the optic nerve is sometimes affected and a 
form of blindness may ensue. 

345. Tobacco Nervousness. — Nervousness and 
trembling are frequently the consequences of smok- 
ing. 

346. Poisonous Effects of Tobacco upon the 
Young. — There is some difference of opinion as to 
whether the moderate use of tobacco in grown persons 
who appear to be uninfluenced by it is injurious. 
But even those who contend that many adults are not 
injured by the moderate use of tobacco, are unani- 
mous in stamping it as one of the most poisonous and 






NARCOTICS. — TOBACCO. 145 

injurious practices, when indulged in by young and 

growing persons. It checks their growth, weakens 
the body, and impairs both muscular and mental 
act i city. Of this there can be no doubt. Some of the 
States have very wisely passed laws forbidding the 
sale of tobacco to young people. 

347. Cigarette Smoking. — This is probably the 
most injurious form of using tobacco. Cigarettes are 
usually made of the very poorest stuff. Being com- 
mon and cheap, they are brought within the reach of 
boys, and in this way tobacco tempts and injures the 
young in the most insidious manner. While a 
smoker of a cigar or pipe simply draws the smoke 
into the mouth and then expels it, the cigarette 
smoker usually inhales it — that is, he draws it into 
his lungs. This practice is not only irritating to the 
lungs, but much more of the poisonous nicotine is ab- 
sorbed than when the smoke is simply drawn into the 
mouth and then puffed out. The paper with which 
cigarettes are made is another objectionable feature, 
its smoke being harsh and irritating. 

348. Other Objections to the Tobacco Habit. 
— The use of snuff is a filthy habit which is not as 
prevalent now as it used to be ; it is apt to injure the 
sense of smell and to keep the nose and throat in an 
irritable and unhealthy condition. Chewing tobacco 
is a disgusting habit which makes the breath foul, 
discolors the teeth, and is accompanied by the dirty 
practice of spitting. 

349. Even under the most favorable circumstances a 
number of objections, based upon abuse of the sense 



146 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

of cleanliness, can be urged against smoking. The 
smell of tobacco-smoke becomes stale and clings to 
the hair and the clothing. The teeth, and frequently 
the fingers, become discolored. The breath cannot 
be sweet, and the atmosphere of our houses is more or 
less vitiated. To many persons the smoke of tobacco 
is offensive, and some are even made sick by it ; 
smokers are very apt to forget this and their good 
manners, and to subject such persons to great annoy- 
ance. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What are narcotics? 2. Why should they never be used with- 
out the advice of a physician ? 3. Which narcotics are used most 
frequently to produce sleep ? 4. Under what circumstances is alco- 
hol a narcotic? 5. What can you say concerning the early history 
of tobacco? 6. What poison does tobacco contain? 7. What are 
the effects of tobacco upon one who is unaccustomed to it? 8. In 
what favorable way may it act upon certain persons after they be- 
come used to it? 9. Does it have this soothing effect upon everybody ? 
10. How is the tobacco habit formed ? 11. Is the use of tobacco 
ever positively beneficial ? 12 . In what manner does tobacco always 
act upon the young? 13. What are some of the injurious effects of 
tobacco in grown persons? 14. What is meant by smoker's sore 
throat? 15. What is tobacco heart? 16. What is tobacco blind- 
ness ? 17. What is tobacco nervousness ? 18. Is there any differ- 
ence of opinion regarding the poisonous effects of tobacco upon the 
young ? 19. What effect has tobacco upon the young ? 20. Why is 
cigarette smoking the most injurious form of using tobacco ? 21. 
What can you say regarding the use of snuff? 22. What can be said 
regarding the practice of chewing tobacco ? 23. What other objec- 
tions can be urged against the use of tobacco ? 



LESSON XXXIII. 
OPIUM AND MOKPHINE. 

350. Opium and Morphine. — Opium is a narcotic, 
but is probably the most useful medicine there is 
when ordered by the doctor in proper cases. It is a 
brown, sticky substance, or it may come in the form 
of a brown powder. It is very poisonous. Most of it 
comes from India and the warm countries of that re- 
gion. It is the juice of the unripe fruit of the poppy- 
plant ; this juice is allowed to dry, and then forms 
this sticky substance. From this is extracted white 
crystals, which have the same effect on the body as 
opium itself ; these crystals are called morphine. 

351. Fluid Forms of Opium. — Opium dissolved 
in alcohol and water is called laudanum. Paregoric 
is another medicine which has opium in it ; a great 
many persons do not know this, and are very careless 
in giving this medicine to babies and to children. 

352. The Opium or Morphine Habit.— Everyone 
has probably heard of the opium habit, or, what is the 
same thing, the morphine habit. It is a habit people 
get into of taking these drugs whether they need them 
or not. Morphine and opium take away pain, and 
make persons sleep when they are sick and restless ; 
in such cases they do a great deal of good. 

353. But persons who have the morphine or opium 



148 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

habit do not take the drug for this purpose, but be- 
cause they think it makes them feel good for the time 
being, and makes them forget any cares they may 
have. But after the effects pass off, they feel miser- 




Fig. 90.— The Opium Plant. 

able. The stomach is upset, they are tired and ner- 
vous, have a very bad headache, and often feel like 
vomiting. They feel so bad that they take more and 
more, until finally they keep under the effects of it all 
the time. Some of them take the narcotic by the 
mouth, others smoke it in long pipes. 



OPIUM AXI) MORPHINE. 149 

354. There is still another way in which these 
wretched people take morphine, and that is by pierc- 
ing the skin with a hollow needle. Some of the mor- 
phine, dissolved in water, is forced under the skin 
from a small glass tube which is attached to the hol- 
low needle. This is probably the most dangerous way 
of taking the drug, when used merely as a habit. 

355. Many persons who have this horrible habit 
have commenced very innocently. Their doctor may 
have ordered the drug for them at a time when they 
needed it. But instead of stopping its use when they 
were well, perhaps they have continued it, imagining 
it made them feel better, until it was too late, and they 
were prisoners of the habit. It is a habit which is 
very difficult to break off ; it is said to be even more 
difficult to stop than either drinking or smoking. 

356. The effects of the opium and morphine habit 
upon the health show themselves very soon. The 
poor wretch soon becomes nervous ; he cannot sleep 
at night ; he has no appetite ; if he takes any food he 
cannot digest and often vomits it ; he becomes thin 
and has a yellow complexion ; his mind changes and 
he loses his memory ; he has no longer the power to 
do right, and he is known to tell lies without hesita- 
tion in order to get some of the drug ; he becomes 
worse and worse, until, finally, when he has no more 
money to buy the drug, and his health is all broken 
up, he dies in the hospital or lunatic asylum, or often 
commits suicide. This is a horrible picture that has 
been drawn, but a true one. 



150 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



QUESTIONS. _ 

1. What is opium? 2. What is morphine? 3. What is laud- 
anum ? 4. What is paregoric ? 5. Is morphine or opium harmful 
when prescribed by the doctor ? 6. What is meant by the opium 
or morphine habit ? 7. What disagreeable effects follow the use of 
opium or morphine taken from habit ? 8. How do persons some- 
times begin this habit? 9. In what different ways is the drug 
used? 10. What effect has the opium and morphine habit upon 
the health ? 11. How do such persons frequently end their lives? 



LESSON XXXIV. 
THE BRAIN, SPINAL CORD, AND NERVES. 

357. These parts (Figs. 91 and 92) give us informa- 
tion of the condition of the body and of what is going 
on around us, so that we can do what is best and 
avoid danger. It is also their work to connect the 
different organs of the body so that they will work 
in harmony. They enable us to feel, think, see, hear, 
etc., and in this way we avoid injury. 

358. When a large number of persons are working 
separately there must always be a head or chief to di- 
rect them. Imagine what disorder there would be in 
the class-room if every pupil did as he or she wished 
and there were no teacher. Think of an army of sol- 
diers, over which there was no general, and every soldier 
did as he wished ; how dreadful the confusion would be ! 
In the saniH way there would be great disorder among 
the organs of our bodies if there was not something to 
connect them and to direct their work ; this is done 
through the brain, spinal, cord, and nerves. 

359. The brain is the chief that superintends the 
entire work of the body. It is situated in the skull. 

360. X^xt, there is an addition to the brain called 
the spinal cord. It is a sort of assistant to the brain. 
The spinal cord runs in the canal or tunnel in the 
backbone. 




Fig. 91.— The Brain, Spinal Cord, and Nerves. 



153 

361. Finally there are the nerves. These are tiny 
threads connecting the brain and spinal cord with dif- 
ferent parts of the body. They are the messengers or 
telegraph wires, so to speak, which carry the wishes 
of the brain to different parts of the body ; they also 
cany messages from different parts of the body to the 
brain. 

362. How the Brain, Spinal Cord, and Nerves 
Act. — The action of these parts can best be understood 
by an example. Suppose a man is walking along the 
street and is about to cross the car- track. His ear 
hears the jingle of the bells and by means of a nerve 
sends a message to the brain ; the brain then sends an 
order along the nerves of the eyes to these organs to 
look in the direction in which the ear has heard the 
sound and to see whether a car is approaching. The 
eyes obey the orders of the brain and look and see 
the car very near, and also perceive that the person 
is in danger of being run over. They immediately 
send back word to the brain about this danger. Then 
the brain sends word to the muscles which move his 
legs ; this message is also transmitted by nerves ; it 
tells these muscles to act immediately. The result is 
that they obey ; he quickens his steps and thus es- 
capes the coming car. 

363. This Action is Very Rapid —All these mes- 
sages are sent back and forth with lightning-like 
rapidity, and it only takes a very small part of a 
second for a message to travel from the tip of the fin- 
ger to r])** brain and back again. 

364. The Brain. — The brain is a large, rounded 




Fig. 92.— The Brain and Spinal Cord. 



THE BRAIN, SPINAL CORD AND NERVES. 



155 



mass of soft tissue which is contained in the oval box 
of bones formed by the skull (Figs. 91 and 92). Being 
surrounded by these liar bones, it is protected from 
injury. The brain can be divided into two halves (Fig. 
93). When we look at it under the microscope, we 




Fig. 93.— The Brain. 



find that it consists of millions of threads or fibres, 
called nerves, and of little bodies called cells. 

365. The Nerves. — Th<> brain and spinal cord give 
off a large number of nerves which pass to different 
parts of the body. There are small holes in the skull 
and backbone by which these nerves pass out. 

'. Kinds of Nerves.— Some of the nerves give 






156 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

feeling to different parts of the body, and especially 
to the skin. When you cut or burn yourself, it is 
one of these nerves which carries the message of pain 
to the brain. Other nerves go to'the different muscles, 
and cause them to act when the brain wishes it. 



QUESTIONS. 

1. Of what use are the brain, spinal cord, and nerves ? 2. Give 
an example to show that there must be a chief or head to everything 
where there are many parts. 3. Where is the brain ? 4. Where is 
the spinal cord ? 5. What relation has ifc to the brain ? 6. What 
are the nerves? 7. What is their work? Give an example to show 
the action of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. 9. Is this action 
slow or rapid ? 10. Of what is the brain formed ? 11. How is the 
brain protected from injury ? 12. How can the brain be divided ? 

13. In what manner do the brain and the spinal cord give off nerves ? 

14. What two kinds of nerves are there? 












LESSON XXXV. 

THE WORK OF THE BRAIN, SPINAL CORD, AND NERVES. 

307. The Brain Renders us Superior to the 
Lower Animals. — The lower animals accomplish dif- 
ferent actions through what we call instinct, that is, 
without the action of the mind. But we can do many 
more things than they, and more difficult acts, because 
our brains are more developed. 

368. The Work of the Brain. — Let us examine 
the work of the brain and see what it does for us. 
In the first place, it is where the will exists ; it is 
where our desires come from. Then as to memory, it 
is the brain which enables us to think about things 
and to remember names, figures, faces, and all other 
tilings. Think of the wonderful action of the brain 
when it is possible for us to remember things all our 
lives ! 

369. Intelligence.— Intelligence has its seat in the 
brain. This prevents us from being stupid ; and en- 
ables us to understand things and to express ourselves 
just as we wish by language. It enables us to see the 
difference between right and wrong, so as to avoid the 
latter. 

370. Training of the Brain.— Much of our mem- 
ory and intelligence depends upon the way in which 
our brain is trained. If we use our brain a great deal, 



158 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

it will become better than if we allow it to remain idle. 
Many things which we study at school are taught us 
for the purpose of training the brain. We should re- 
member that we cannot think of more than one thing 
at a time. When you study your lessons, you should 
hot think of play ; and when you play, you should 
enjoy yourself, and need not think of your studies. 
There is a time for play and a time for study. 

871. Sleep. — Sleep is the natural rest of the train. 
Just as every other part of the body needs rest during 
each twenty -four hours, so does the brain. We may 
rest any other part of the body without sleep ; but 
the only sign that the brain is resting completely and 
is not active is sleep. 

372. Children Require Plenty of Sleep.— The 
amount of sleep which is necessary varies with differ- 
ent people. Men who think a great deal require more 
than those who do bodily work. The average sleep 
necessary for most men is from seven to eiglit hours. 
Children require more sleep and should have from 
nine to ten hours, for while the bod}^ is growing rap- 
idly more rest is needed. 

373. The Proper Time for Sleep.— Night is the 
time for sleep. — Young people who dance all night or 
until late at night and then sleep by day, soon look 
pale and tired out, and often weaken their bodies so 
much that they become sick. The proper time for 
children to go to bed is from eight to nine o'clock; 
they should then rise at six or seven. 

374. The Effects of Alcoholic Drink upon the 
Brain and Nerves- — The brain and nerves have a 



WORK OF THE BRAIN, SPINAL CORD, AND NERVES. 159 

great enemy in alcohol. If a large quantity of alco- 
holic drink is taken at one time, and the person be- 
comes intoxicated, he becomes stupid in his intelli- 
gence, but excited in other ways — he sings, or cries, 
or begins to laugh like a fool, or begins to scold, and 
often lights. He forgets that he is a human being and 
acts like a brute, lie is unable to walk straight and 
staggers along in a pitiable way, catching on to lamp- 
posts or any other place for support. The effect upon 
the nerves is shown by the way every part of his 
body trembles, and by his great unsteadiness. A 
drunken man is a disgusting sight ! If his drunken- 
ness be repeated many times and becomes a habit the 
memory begins to fail, the person becomes bloated 
and fat, but very weak, his health fails, his hands 
tremble, his eyes and nose are constantly bloodshot, 
he becomes dirty and careless, and the individual 
changes into a good-for-nothing. 

375. As a result of drunkenness there is often pro- 
duced a disease of the nerves in which the victim is 
out of his mind. It is a condition which kills many 
men, and which is dangerous to the drunkard and to 
those who are around him ; he tries to do all sorts of 
violent things, especially to jump out of the window. 
He imagines that he Bees animals, such as mice, rats, 
and snakes, and he thinks these are chasing him, and 
he wants to inn away. It is difficult to keep him 
quiet. Tli<* whole body trembles from the poisonous 
effects of the alcohol. The heart is often weakened so 
much that the person dies because this organ has be- 
come too weak. 



160 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

376. Effect of Tobacco upon the Nerves. — 

This shows itself chiefly by the trembling hands and 
the nervousness which we often notice in persons who 
smoke a great deal. Many persons, especially young 
men, cannot smoke at all without nervousness. Boys 
are always made nervous by tobacco. 

377. Effects of Coffee and Tea upon the 
Nerves. — Coffee and tea excite the nerves. They are 
often the cause of nervousness and trembling ; also of 
palpitation of the heart, which is a form of nervous- 
ness. Children are better off without coffee or tea ; 
milk is a much better drink for growing bodies. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What do we mean when we say the lower animals accom- 
plish different actions by instinct ? 2. Which is the more devel- 
oped, the brain of man or that of the lower animals ? 3. What does 
the brain do for us ? 4. Where does the will exist ? 5. What ena- 
bles us to think of things? 6. What is memory ? 7. What is the 
seat of intelligence ? 8. What is intelligence ? 9. How can we train 
the brain? 10. Why is sleep necessary? 11. What effect has sleep 
upon the brain? 12. How much sleep do grown persons usually 
require ? 13. How much sleep do children require ? 13. What is 
the proper time for sleep ? 14. When should children retire ? 15. 
What are the effects of alcoholic drink upon the brain and nerves ? 

16. What disease of the nerves does drunkenness often produce ? 

17. What effect has tobacco upon the nerves of many persons ? 18. 
What effect has tobacco upon boys ? 19. In what injurious way do 
coffee and tea often act upon the nerves? 20. What is a better 
drink for children than coffee and tea ? 






LESSON XXXVI. 

THE FIVE SENSES.— THE SENSE OF SIGHT— THE EYE. 

378. The Five Senses. — There are certain organs 
in the body which add a great deal to our comfort and 
give us knowledge and pleasure. The duties of these 
organs are called the senses. There are live of them : 

1. Sight— The eye. 



2. Hearing — The ear. 

3. Smell — The nose. 

4. Taste — The tongue. 

5. Touch— The skin. 



THE SENSE OF SIGHT— THE EYE. 

379. How the Eyes are Protected. — The eye is 

one of the most delicate organs in the body. It is 
protected by being placed in the large opening in the 
skull just below the forehead, on each side of the 
nose. Besides this, it is also protected by the eye- 
brows, eyelids, and eyelashes, which keep out dust 
and exclude the light when too strong, or during 
sleep. 

380. Parts of the Eye — The eye is spherical in 
shape (Fig. 94), and measures about an inch in di- 
ameter. Its front portion is perfectly transparent, 
but behind it is opaque and white. 



162 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

381. Looking into the eye we see in the centre a 
black spot which is called the pupil. It is a round 
opening in a colored curtain. The pupil changes its 
size very often. It regulates the amount of light 
which should enter the eye. In going into a bright 
light, as, for instance, into the sunlight, the pupil be- 




p IG# 94. — The Eye (cat Across and Enlarged). 

comes very small ; if it did not do so, the light would 
be too bright and would injure the eye. 

382. Behind the curtain of the eye is a round trans- 
parent body, about the size of a cherry-pit, which is 
called the lens. It is perfectly clear, and its shape is 
like that of a small magnifying-glass ; but it is softer, 
like a hard jelly. 

383. The interior of the eye is partly filled with 









THE BBN8S OF SIGHT — THE EYE. 163 

fluid. Just behind the clear parr, and extending to 
the lens, is a space which is filled with a watery fluid. 
The rest of the eyeball (behind the lens) is rilled with 
a clear jelly-like substance. All these parts are 
shown in Fig. 94. 

384. The Muscles of the Eye.— The eyes are 
able to move in every direction ; this is necessary to 
protect the body. There are six small muscles at- 
tached to each eye, which enable it to move very rap- 
idly (Fi£ 




Fig. 35. — The Muscles which Hove the Eye. 

385. The Eye Resembles a Photographer's 
Camera. — Let us see how the eye resembles the box 
which the photographer uses to take pictures, and 
which is called a camera. In the first place the pho- 
tographer cannot take a picture in the dark, nor can we 
see in the dark. Secondly, in the front of the camera 
there is a lens of glass ; we also have a lens, though it 
is of course not of glass, but of a better and softer ma- 
terial. Again, in the back of the photographer's 
camera there is a glass plate, upon which the picture 
falls and is tak^n : in the same way in our eyes a 
layer of nerves aerv< upon which to take 



164 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

the picture. Anything which we see forms an image 
upon this layer of nerves. This image lasts only a 
short time, but long enough for us to see it. Finally, 
you have probably noticed how the photographer puts 
a black cloth over his head and the back of the 
camera so as to keep it dark ; there is also a dark, 
colored coat in the interior of the eye which serves to 
darken it. 

386. The Nerve of the Eye. — Connected with the 
back of the eye is a portion resembling a cord, which 
passes to the brain. This is the optic nerve, or nerve 
of the eye, and connects the eye with the brain. 

387. The Tears. — The eye is constantly kept 
moist by being bathed with tears. Even during sleep 
this takes place, though there is then much less pro- 
duced. When we are awake, the constant movements 
of the eyelids spread the tears over the eyes. After 
the tears have moistened the eyes they are collect 
ed again, and escape into the nose by means of a tube 



QUESTIONS. 



; 



1. Name the five senses. 2. What are the uses of the senses ? 
3. How are the eyes protected ? 4. How are dust and light kept 
out of the eyes ? 5. Describe the different parts of the eye. 6. 
What is the pupil of the eye ? 7. Of what use is the pupil of the 
eye ? 8. How does the pupil of the eye change its size ? 9. What 
is the lens of the eye ? 10. What is there in the interior of the 
eye ? 11. How are the eyes moved ? 12. In what ways does the 
eye resemble the photographer's camera ? 13. Where is the nerve 
of the eye ? 14. With what other part of the body does the optic 
nerve connect the eye ? 15. How are the eyes kept moist ? 16. 
What becomes of the tears after they have moistened the eyes ? 



LESSON XXXVII. 

THE CARE OF THE EYES. 

388. There is no organ in the body which contrib- 
utes so much to our comfort, our enjoyment, and our 
knowledge, as does the eye. And yet the eye is being 
constantly misused. Some of the most common rules 
for the care of the eyes are the following : 

339. After having read a long while it is well to stop 
and rest the eyes ; for the eyes, like any other part of 
the body, cannot be used continuously. 

390. Never read in a poor light. 

391. Never read very fine print, or poor print, if 
you can help it. 

392. Do not stoop when you read. Place the book 
in such a position that you can read comfortably with 
the head erect (Figs. 96 and 97). 

393. In reading, have the light come over your shoul- 
der and thus fall upon the book or paper without go- 
ing directly into the eyes. It is better to sit with your 
back to the window and thus have the light come over 
your shoulder, and preferably over the left shoulder. 
This precaution is especially useful at night, for the 
glare of the gaslight or lamp is very tiring to the eyes. 
If the light is behind and above you and falls over 
your shoulder, there is more light upon your book or 
paper, and yet the eyes are spared the brightness. 



166 



PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



394. Never read while lying upon the back. This 
causes a great strain upon the eyes. 

395. There maybe some excuse for business men's 
reading in the cars, for often this may be the only 
time they have to read the daily papers. But there is 
no reason why children should do this. It is injuri- 
ous, in the first place, because the light is usually 
poor, but chiefly, because the constant jolting of the 





Fig. 96.— The Correct Position in 
Reading. 



Fig. 97.— Faulty Position in Reading. 



car makes the page unsteady and requires a constant 
strain upon the eyes to keep the place. 

396. Never wash your eyes with water which an- 
other person has used on his face. Never use a towel, 
for wiping your face, which another person has had to 
his face, unless this person is one of your family and 
you know he has no eye disease. There is a disease 
of the eyelids, called granular lids, which is very 
contagious ; many children contract it by using the 



THE CAKE OF THE EYES. 167 

towel or handkerchief which another child who had 
the disease lias used. 

397. Effect of Alcoholic Drink upon the Sight. 

— The use of large quantities of alcoholic drink has 
a very bad effect upon the sight and may lead to 
blindness. There is a disease of the optic nerve, the 
nerve of the eye, which is due to poisoning from 
alcohol. 

398. Effect of Tobacco Poisoning upon the 
Sight. — When the body becomes poisoned from the 
use of tobacco, the nerve of the eye may become dis- 
eased and a failing of the sight or blindness similar to 
that produced by alcohol may result. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. Why is it well to rest the eve after having read for any length 
of time? 2. What position should you assume in reading? 3. 
From which direction should the light come in reading ? 4. Why is 
it well to have the light come from over the shoulder? 5. Ought 
we to read while lying upon the back ? 6. Why not ? 7. Why is 
it injurious to read in cars ? 8. What precautions should we take 
so as to avoid contracting disease of the eyelids from another per- 
son ? 9. What injury to sight sometimes follows the use of large 
fjuantities of alcoholic drink ? 10. What similar effect sometimes 
follows poisoning from tobacco ? 



LESSON XXXVIII. 



THE SENSE OF HEAKING.— THE EAR. 



399. Like the eye, the ear is an organ which adds 
very much to our comfort, pleasure, and knowledge. 

400. Parts of the Ear.— The ear is divided into 
three parts : An outer ^ a middle, and an inner. 

401. The Outer Ear.— This part is seen at the side 
of the head (Fig. 98). Its shape is not only ornamen- 
tal but useful, for it serves to 
collect the sound and lead it 
into the deeper parts of the ear. 
From this outer part of the ear 
there is a canal (Fig. 99), about 
an inch long, which leads to the 
next part, the middle ear. In 
this canal is usually found a 
little yellowish substance, called 
ear-wax, which serves to keep 
the canal soft and moist. 

402. The Middle Ear.— The 
middle part of the ear is at the 
bottom of the canal which leads 
from the outer ear (Fig. 99). 
Between the two a sheet of membrane is stretched, 
which is called the drum-membrane. In the middle 




Fig. 98.— The Outer Ear. 



THE SENSE OF HEARING. — THE EAR. 



169 



ear itself there is nothing but three small hemes, which 
are joined so as to form a chain. 

403. The Ear and the Throat are Connected. 
— Perhaps you may have noticed that when you blow 
your nose very hard there is sometimes a stuffed feel- 
ins in the ears. This is because air has entered the 
ear by means of a tube which runs from the throat to 
the middle ear (Fig. 99). 

404 The Inner Ear. — This part of the ear is placed 




Fig. 99.— The Different Parts of the Ear. 

very deeply in the bone. There are several circular 
canals and a staircase hollowed out of the bone, and 
in these the inner ear is contained (Fig. 99). 

405. The Nerve of Hearing.— The nerve of hear- 
ing is attached to the inner ear, and from this part it 
passes to the brain. It conducts sound to the brain 
just as tli< 4 nerve of the eye conducts sight to the 
brain. 

406. Sound. — Before studying how we hear, it is 
necessary to understand how sound is produced. 
Sound is produced whenever the air is made to vibrate 



170 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY ATTD HYGIENE. 

— that is, whenever the air is put into motion resem- 
bling waves. You will understand this better if you 
think for a moment of the water : Suppose when a 
pond is quiet, you throw in a stone ; this causes a mo- 
tion in the water and you will then see rings start out 
from the point where the stone fell, these rings becom- 
ing larger and larger until they are finally lost ; but 
all the time these rings, or very small waves, have been 
going farther and farther from the centre. Now im- 
agine the same thing occurring in the air. If you 
strike a bell, for instance, you know that the bell is 
vibrating, because if you put your finger on it you can 
feel this motion. This motion is given to the air, and 
the air vibrates in the same way, except that the vibra- 
tions travel through the air to our ear. 

407. How We Hear. — The waves of sound pass 
through the air and reach the outer ear which leads 
them into the canal to the drum-membrane. Beating 
against this membrane they cause it to vibrate ; this 
sets the bones of the middle ear in motion and they 
carry the vibrations to the inner ear, and the nerve of 
hearing carries the sound to the brain. 

408. Care of the Ears. — We should never try to 
pick out the wax in the ears with hairpins and other 
sharp instruments. A little wax is quite natural, and 
if too much is there it is best to let the doctor remove 
it, for we may injure the delicate parts of the ear. 

409. A blow upon the side of the head or over the 
ear is dangerous, because it sometimes affects the 
brain ; it may also tear the delicate drum -membrane 
and thus interfere with good hearing. 



THE SENSE OF HEARING. — THE EAR. 171 



QUESTIONS. 

1. Into what parts can we divide the ear? 2. Where is the outer 
ear? 3. What is its use? 4. Where is the canal of the ear? 5. 
Where is the middle ear? 6. Where are the bones of the ear? 7. 
What is the drum-membrane? 8. How are the ear and the throat 
connected? 9. Where is the inner ear? 10. What parts are con- 
nected by the nerve of hearing? 11. How is sound produced? 12. 
Explain how we hear. 13. Ought we to pick out the ear-wax ? 14. 
Why is a blow upon the side of the head or over the ear dangerous? 



LESSON XXXIX. 



THE SENSE OF SMELL.— THE NOSE. 



410. The nose is the organ with which we smell. It 
is also the part through which the air is drawn. 

411. The Breathing Channel and the Smelling 
Channel. — When we breathe, we draw the air back- 
ward through the lower part of the nose. When we 
smell, we draw the air upward, because we want the 
odor to ascend to where the nerves of smell are (Figs. 
100 and 101). 



Smell ... 
Mr 



food 




Fig. 100. — The Routes by which Air, Food, and Smell enter the Body. 

412. Parts of the Nose.— The hard part of the 
nose on the outside, where usually people wear their 
eye-glasses, is formed of two small bones and is called 
the bridge of the nose. In looking into the nose we 



THE SENSE OF SMELL. — THE NOSE. 



173 



find that it is divided into two halves. The openings 
in front are called the nostrils. 

413. The Nerves of Smell.— The brain lies imme- 
diately above the nose. The nerves of smell come in' 
bunches from the brain and descend into the nose 
(Fig. 101). They serve to carry odors to the brain. 




Fig. 101.— The Interior of the Nose, Showing also the Nerves of Smell. 

414. Uses of the Sense of Smell.— With the 

sense of smell we are able to enjoy agreeable odors. 
But what is important is, that we are also able to 
smell bad odors, thus protecting the body by inform- 
ing us of the whereabouts of obnoxious tilings which 
should be avoided, especially of impure air. It en- 
ables us to select the proper food^ and to refuse that 
which is unfit to Kir. Tt often protects our bodies and 
homes by enabling us to smell smoke, and in this way 
to discover the existence of a fire. 



174 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

415. Perfume. — Many persons use perfume to put 
upon their handkerchiefs and clothes so that they 
may smell sweet ; but, as a rule, the most refined peo- 
ple do not use perfumes. If you always keep the 
body clean and brush your teeth, you will not need 
any perfume ; for if the body is clean, it always smells 
sweet. Soap and water are better than perfume for 
tidy people. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What are the uses of the nose ? 2. Through what part of the 
nose do we breathe? 3. Through what part of the nose do we 
draw the air in smelling ? 4. What part of the nose is called the 
bridge ? 5. Where are the nostrils ? 6. Where are the nerves of 
smell ? 7. To what part do they carry the odors ? 8. W T hat are the 
uses of the sense of smell ? 9. What can you say in regard to the 
use of perfume upon the clothes and handkerchief ? 



LESSON XL. 

THE SENSE OF TASTE. -THE TONGUE. 

416. The tongue is the organ with which we taste 
our food. It consists almost entirely of muscle tissue. 
Irs under surface is smooth and its upper surface very 
rough. This roughness is due to a large number of 




Fig. 102.— The Tongue. 



176 PRIMARY PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

small projections (Fig. 102). These are the parts which 
give us taste. The nerves of taste end here. They also 
enable us to feel the food in our mouth and to discov- 
er whether it is chewed sufficiently fine, and mixed 
enough with the saliva before it is swallowed. 

417. Uses of the Tongue — The tongue is the or- 
gan of taste. It is also used to revolve the food in 
the mouth, to mix it with the saliva, and to assist in 
swallowing. Finally we use the tongue in speaking. 
The sense of taste is very important. It enables us to 
choose our food and to avoid what is unfit to eat ; it 
prevents us from eating improper food ; it increases 
the appetite and makes us enjoy our meals when the 
food is to our liking. 

418. But though the sense of taste adds much to our 
enjoyment, it is necessary to prevent it from taking 
too many liberties, otherwise we shall be eating too 
much, become gluttons, and suffer in health. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. How does the under surface of the tongue differ from the upper 
surface? 2. Why is its upper surface rough? 3. What are the uses 
of these projections? 4. Where do the nerves of taste end? 5 
What are the uses of the tongue ? 






BROWN'S SERIES 



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